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1 


The  Jiterarr  Digest 
ATLAS 


OF  THE 


NEW  EUROPE 
and  THE  FARj)  EAST 


1 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


UCLA  MAP  LIBRARY 
Rec'd  3  0  OCT  1970 

No.:  File-- 


The  Jiterar^  Digest 

ATLAS 

of  the 

NEW  EUROPE 

and 

THE  FAR  EAST 


Showing  the  new  Countries  and  new  Boundaries 

resulting  from  the  Great  War  and 

from  the  Treaties  of  Peace 

\ 

WITH  EXPLANATORY  HISTORICAL, 
POLITICAL  and  ECONOMIC  ARTICLES 

Prepared,  from  the  most  Recent  and  Authoritative 
Sources  in  Europe    and    America, 

By 

Allan  Updegraff 

Of  The  Literary  Digest 
Editorial  Staff 


FUNK    &    WAGNALLS     COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

1922 

3U424 


Copyright,  1921,  by 

FUNK  &  WAGNALLS  COMPANY 

[Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America) 

Published  in  December,  1921 


Copyright  Under  the  Articles  of  the  Copyright  Convention 

of  the  Pan-American  Republics  and  the 

United  States.  August  11,  1910. 


Map 
Library 


CONTENTS 


France,  with  the  Lost  Provinces   Regained 4 

The  New  German  RepubHc 6 

Shrunken  Russia  of  the    Soviets 8 

Greater   Britain 1^ 

^    The  New  Republic  of  Austria • 12 

f^     The  New  Kingdom  of  Hungary 14 

„     The  New  Czecho-Slovakian  RepubHc 16 

The  New  Kingdom  of  Jugo-Slavia 18 

The  New   Bulgaria 20 

The  New  Kingdom  of  Greece 22 

The  New  Italy 24 

The  New  and    Greater   Roumania 26 

The  Waning  Turkish   Crescent 28 

The  New  Transcaucasian  RepubHcs 30 

The  New  Republic  of  Finland 32 

The  New  Republics  of  Poland  and  Lithuania 34 

The  Island  Nations  of  the  Pacific 36 

The  New  "Land  of  Promise"  in  Palestine 38 

The  European  Advance  in    Asia ' 40 

The  New  Partition  of  Africa 42 


France,  with  the  Lost  Provinces  Regained 


BACK  IN  ITS  OLD  BOUNDARIES  of  1870,  with  added 
advantages  from  the  war  in  economic  concessions,  the 
\-irtual  ownership  of  the  rich  German  coal  mines  of  the 
Saar  Basin,  and  an  increase  of  nearly  200,003  square  miles  in 
its  overseas  domain,  modern  France  is  once  more  admittedly  "the 
dominant  power  of  Continental  Europe."  The  return  of  the  lost 
provinces,  Alsace  and  Lorraine.added  a  total  area  of  5,605  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  approximately  1,900,000.  The 
total  present  area  and  population  of  the  Republic,  212,6.59 
square  mUes  inhabited  by  41,500,000  people,  represent  the 
nation's  greatest  expanse  since  the  time  of  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
The  power  of  Germany,  so  long  potentially,  if  not  actually, 
dominant  on  the  continent,  remains  only  a  threatening  shadow 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine. 

The  present  situation  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  as  may  be  gathered 
from  the  reports  of  several  recent  investigators,  somewhat  re- 
sembles that  which  existed  in  1789,  shortly  after  France  first 
gained  the  provinces  as  a  result  of  European  wars  and  treaties,  in 
which  Germany  was  then,  as  now,  her  chief  opponent.  "Both 
in  Lorraine  and  Alsace  there  existed  at  this  time"  (1789),  record 
the  writers  of  "An  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe"  (by 
C.  Grant  Robertson  and  J.  G.  Bartholomew,  Oxford  University 
Press,  London),  "a  network  of  imperial  feudal  rights  and  jurisdic- 
tions, connected  with  the  organization  of  Germany.  A  series  of 
maps  would  be  required  to  Ulustrate  the  diversity,  lack  of 
unification  and  symmetry,  that  underlay  the  deceptive  uni- 
formity of  the  political  map.  The  revolutionary  "and  the 
Napoleonic  epoch  swept  all  these  obstacles  to  a  real  unification 
away,  and  embarked  Revolutionary  France  on  a  series  of  wars 
of  conquest,  the  results  of  which  reached  their  climax  in  1810." 
A  modern  American  investigator,  Laurence  Hills,  of  the  Paris 
Bureau  of  the  New  York  Herald,  writing  on  the  occasion  of  the 
third  anniversary  of  France's  recovery  of  her  provinces  (Novem- 
ber 25,  1921),  lost  to  Germany  in  1870  and  returned  by  the  Great 
War,  speaks  of  the  present  Alsace-Lorraine  as"topsy  turvj'land." 
He  writes,  in  a  way  whicli  suggests  history  repeating  itself: 

" In  their  fifty  years  of  administration  (since  1870),  the  Ger- 
mans had  made  Alsace-Lorraine  face  the  fatherland,  never 
patriotically,  but  economically  and  by  force  politically.  They 
had  Germanized  the  schools,  Germanized  all  the  system  of  law 
and  pretty  well  Germanized  all  of  the  business  practise. 

"The  people  who  believed  that  Alsace-Lorraine  after  these 
fifty  years  coidd  be  turned  completely  around  over  night  and 
made  to  face  France  had  not  counted  upon  all  this.  The  fact 
that  it  is  only  half  turned  around  after  three  years  of  desperate 
struggling  with  the  problem  by  the  French  administration  is  to 
them  the  cause  to-daj'  of  much  disappointment  and  complaint. 
The  real  Alsatians  who  want  to  be  French  are  complaining 
bitterly  that  they  are  yet  neither  one  thing  nor  the  other.  French 
pf)liticians  are  complaining  that  this  is  because  the  people  of 
Alsace-Lorraine  do  not  seem  to  want  to  be  either  one  thing  or  the 
other. 

"As  one  French  official  in  Strasbourg  exprest  it  to  the  cor- 
respondent: 'We  tried  to  put  on  a  ready-made  French  suit  here 
and  found  that  they  had  to  have  one  made  to  order.' 

"That  the  country  is  only  half  turned  around  is  evident  the 
moment  one  crosses  the  Vosges.  Fifty  per  ctrnt.  of  the  laws  under 
which  the  people  are  living  and  trying  to  do  business  are  still 
German  laws.  A  man  does  busin(!ss  under  the  Froncdi  commercial 
law,  but  goes  to  jail  under  the  German  penal  code.  F'rench 
teachers  in  the  schools  arc  trying  to  teach  the  tlu-ee  Us  in  French 
to  children  whose  language  many  of  them  do  not  speak.  The 
universities  are  without  their  full  comi)Iement  of  professors  be- 
cause there  have  not  b<-en  found  enough  l''reiiclimen  or  enough 
intellectuals  among  the  Alsacc-Lorraiiie  j)oj)ulatii)n  to  take  the 
places  of  the  German  intellectuals,  all  of  whom  cleared  out  of 
the  country  after  the  armistice  and  have  been  forbidden  to 
reenter  it." 

Out  of  this  situation,  "with  its  resultant  confusion  and  com- 
plaint," reports  Mr.  Ilills,  "German  proi)agandisls  inside  and 
outside  of  Alsace-Lorraine  are  now  trying  to  nuik<;  all  the  capital 


they  can."  If  a  plebiscite  had  been  taken  immediately  after  the 
armistice,  Ije  admits,  it  would  have  shown  a  higher  percentage 
in  favor  of  French  citizenship  than  to-day,  for  "no  pot  of  gold 
has  been  found  and  the  rainbow  has  faded  before  hard  realities." 

It  is  estimated  by  this  authority  that,  out  of  400,000  immigrant 
Germans  in  Alsace  before  the  war,  more  than  300,000  pure 
Germans  remain  intermingled  with  the  French  population 
"because  of  the  clause  of  the  peace  treaty  permitting  those 
married  to  Alsatian  women  to  take  the  citizenship  of  their 
wives."  On  the  economic  side,  the  long  haul  required  for  French 
goods,  and  the  failure  to  secure  orders  from  France  has' resulted 
in  putting  the  cost  of  living  16  per  cent,  higher  than  elsewhere 
in  the  Republic.  "Alsace-Lorraine  is,  economically,  perhaps  the 
best  example,  on  a  large  scale,  of  the  enormous  dislocation  pro- 
duced by  the  peace  treaty,"  Mr.  HiUs  reports.  "For  the 
moment,  it  is  almost  as  bad  as  if  one  of  the  New  England  Spates 
suddenly  found  itself  annexed  to  Canada,  with  wages  and  pro- 
duction costs  in  the  United  States  about  one-third  those  across 
the  line." 

The  regained  provinces,  however,  find  themselves  in  scarcely  / 
harder  circumstances  than  does  all  France.  Norman  Angell, 
known  as  the  author  of  "The  Great  Illusion"  and  the  more 
recent  anti-militaristic  volume,  "The  Fruits  of  Victory"  (1921), 
presents  the  case  of  the  Republic  as  an  outstanding  example 
of  the  cost  of  victory  in  modern  warfare.  "A  courageous  ex- 
penditure of  her  energies  and  resources,"  throughout  the  war, 
agrees  Isaiah  Bowman,  President  of  the  American  Geographical 
Society  of  New  York,  in  his  study  of  after- war  problems,  "The 
New  World:  Problems  in  Political  Geography,"  have  brought 
her  "a  crop  of  after-war  troubles  of  the  gravest  import."  Also, 
as  the  author  points  out: 

"Every  Frencimian  took  for  granted  what  Lloyd  George 
felt  obliged  to  promise  the  British  people  in  December,  1918 — 
that  Germany  could  be  made  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  war;  it  was 
in  that  expectation  that  many  men  had  toiled  and  fought  during 
four  years  of  war^  It  was  like\vise  expected  that  the  bill  to 
Germany  should  include  compensation  for  all  the  damage  done 
to  civalian  property.  When  the  war  ended  and  a  settlement  came 
to  be  made,  it  was  discovered  that  Germany  had  destroyed  so 
much  that  she  could  never  pay  the  damage  in  addition  to  the 
costs  of  war.  This  was  a  terrible  blow  to  France.  The  effect 
on  the  French  spirit  was  not  unlike  that  of  a  great  military 
defeat." 

In  addition  to  the  difficulties  within  her  own  borders,  which 
many  economists  consider  so  serious  as  to  tlu-eaten  her  with  actual 
bankruptcy,  her  publicists  dwell  on  the  fact  that  she  is  faced  by  a 
constant  threat  from  Germany.  England,  it  is  felt,  is  no  longer 
sympathetic.  "We  are  accused  of  merciless  aiming  to  crush 
Germany,  or  constantly  brandishing  the  saber  and  disturbing 
the  peace  of  Europe,"  complains  Raymond  Recouly,  in  Le  Revue 
de  France,  as  translated  for  The  Living  Age  (Boston): 

"We  should  say  to  England:  'The  guarantee  which  you  and 
Amerii^a  promised  us  in  the  form  of  an  alliance  has  vanished 
into  thin  air.  When,  in  three  years,  or  in  ten,  the  question  of 
the  evacuation  of  th(^  Rhine  arises,  our  immediate  interest,  wliich 
is  the  protection  of  our  country,  will  oblige  us  to  seek  a  new 
guaranty.  .iVll  we  ask  is  that  we  attempt  to  look  for  one  togel  lier. 
Help  us  to  find  it.  But  we  .shall  insist  without  llinching  on  the 
need  of  some  guaranty.'  " 

"From  every  point  of  view,"  concludes  this  French  apologist: 

"It  is  advisable  for  Franco  to  adopt  a  frank,  loyal,  and  open 
policy  toward  (iormany,  bo  it  in  matters  of  security  or  of  r(«para^ 
tions.  We  should  like  nothing  better  than  to  come  to  an  under- 
standing with  the  ( iernuin  Democrats.  But  we  are,  nevertheless, 
ol)lige(l  to  keui)  a  sharp  eye  on  affairs  bejond  the  Rhine.  The 
position  of  the  (ierman  Democracy  is  none  too  stable — far 
from  it.  A  return  to  power  of  the  military  roiictionarios  is  quite 
l)ossihle,  not  to  say  probable.  And  we  well  know  what  such  a 
restoration  would  bode  for  us!" 


DECISIONS    BY   TREATY 

1       Alsace-Lorraine     returned      to 

France  as  in  ItiTl. 
O     Sarre  Basin  coal  mines  ceded 

to  France,  territory  under 
League  of  Nations,  wilh  plebiscite 
after  15  yearaaa  betwoen  Ciermany, 
France  and  the  League  of  Nations. 
q     Circles    Eupen   and    Malmedy 

ceded  lo  Belgium. 

4  Morcsnet  under  full  sover- 
eignty of  Belgium. 

pr  Luxemburg  neutral  without 
any  German  control. 


^'-i  Start  Point 


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ISLANDS 


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FRANCE 

BELGIUM  and  LUXEMBURG 


CnpenduS 
Siee 
**"[(  Tuchand 


Territory  before  the  War  in  light 
color 

Territory  added  according  totreaty 
of  Versailles  in  darker  color    .    . 


"t" 


tlAuljagne  , 


Frejos 
iSl.Tropez 


Co/Jl?" 


Gulfof^Liqns 


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Scale  of  Milek 
20         40         60  80  1     100  1: 


ArgeloB 
|Port-Vendrca  - 


Kilometers 

60  io6 


160 


COPYRIGHT.   1921,    eV   fUNK  A  W*ONAI.Ls  COMPANY.   NEW  V0«« 
TwE   liATTMEWS-NORTMHuP  W0*"i6.   BuFF«Li3,   ^.  ». 


Longitude  East        3       from  Greenwicb 


The  New  German  Republic 


REVOLUTION  WITHIN  and  territorial  losses  along  its 
borders  have  produced  a  modern  Germany  vastly  dif- 
ferent from  the  nation  which  "stood  forth  in  shining 
armor"  only  three  or  four  years  ago.  On  the  18th  of  January, 
1921,  occurred  the  semicentenary  of  the  founding  of  the  German 
Empire,  an  event  that  stirred  publicists  all  over  the  world  to  com- 
pare the  Germany  that  was  with  the  Germany  of  the  present  time. 
"If  seven  years  ago  one  had  been  asked  to  look  ahead  to  this 
fiftieth  anniversary,"  observed  the  New  York  Times,  "it  would 
have  been  predicted  that  it  would  be  celebrated  with  such 
triumph  and  jubilations  as  the  world  has  rarely  seen.  The 
German  dynastj%  Government,  and  people  could  have  been 
counted  on  to  do  something  colossal  on  an  anniversary  which 
could  so  truly  be  called  golden.  .  .  .  But  last  Tuesday  saw  no  ex- 
pressions of  friendship  coming  in  from  foreign  peoples.  It  found 
a  Germany  universally  regarded  with  suspicion  and  resentment, 
and  so  weak  that  its  ill-will  to  the  world,  tho  everywhere  taken 
for  granted,  aroused  no  particular  apprehension.  The  dynasty 
glorified  in  1871  was  in  exUe,  the  military  caste  which  had 
glorified  it  was  in  at  least  temporary  eclipse.  Such  commemora- 
tion of  the  day  as  openly  took  place  in  Germany  was  regarded  by 
large  factions  of  the  German  people  as  little  better  than  a  trea- 
sonable demonstration  against  the  existing  Government,  and  the 
memory  of  1871  was  equally  bitter  among  those  who  saw  in  that 
great  day  a  splendor  such  as  Germany  might  never  attain  again, 
and  in  circles  where  it  was  regarded  as  the  beginning  of  the  march 
to  destruction.  In  all  history  there  can  hardly  be  found  so 
complete  a  peripety  as  the  story  of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  German 
Empire." 

In  several  basic  respects,  however,  it  appears  that  the 
world  at  large  has  been  inclined  to  overestimate  the  "fall" 
of  the  nation  from  its  previous  high  state.  The  present 
population  of  Germany,  according  to  official  government 
statistics  recently  made  public,  is  placed  at  60,900,197.  This 
is  some  5,000,000  more  than  the  most  reliable  previous 
estimates,  notably  that  in  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book"  for 
1920,  which  placed  the  "probable  population"  at  55,086,000. 
Since  the  total  population  in  1914  was  64,925,993,  the  new 
government  figures  show  that  Germany  has  lost  only  four  and 
a  half  million  net  population  by  war  and  annexation,  or  less 
than  half  the  estimated  number.  Figures  taken  from  the  recent 
German  census  throw  light,  also,  on  the  reported  sufferings 
of  German  children  through  shortage  of  the  mUk  supply.  The 
number  of  cows  at  present  in  the  country  is  placed  at  16,500,000. 
The  ratio  of  cows  to  population,  even  tho  comparing  unfavorably 
with  the  American  total  of  68,232,000  in  a  population  of  about 
105,.")(l0,000,  is  seen  to  be  not  hopelessly  small.  In  1914,  with  a 
population  about  4,500,000  larger  than  at  present,  Germany 
owned  22,000,000  cattle;  in  1916,  21,000,000. 

Territorially,  Germany  proper  has  not  suffered  anything  like 
the  immense  losses  which  have  been  borne  by  her  partners  in 
the  war.  The  European  area,  as  shown  on  tho  accompanying 
map,  is  reduced  from  a  total  of  208,780  square  miles  in  1914  to  a 
present  total  of  183,381.  These  figures,  which  represent  a  eom- 
liination  of  statistics  compiled  by  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book" 
for  1921,  The  Geof/raphical  Review  (Now  York),  and  the  Matthews- 
Northrup  Map  Works  of  Buffalo,  may  be  subject  to  slight  re- 
vision. In  Africa,  where  the  country's  huge  territorial  losses 
occurred,  the  Government  has  been  forced  to  give  up  an  empire 
almost  four  times  as  large  as  the  present  republic.  Gorman 
East  Africa,  conquered  by  the  British  in  1918  and  now  called 
"Tanganyika  Territory,"  was  .384,180  square  miles  in  extent  and 
supported  a  population,  according  to  tho  "World  Almanac"  for 
1921,  of  7,6.50,000.  German  Southwest  Africa,  with  an  area  of 
322,4.'J0  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  l.lO.fKJO,  was  con- 
quered by  tho  British  in  1915,  and  madc>  a  protectorato  under  the 


Union  of  South  Africa.  These  great  tracts  were  chiefly  valuable 
to  Germany,  in  the  view  of  most  British  authorities,  as  stepping- 
stones  on  the  way  to  India.  Of  the  territorial  losses  of  Germany 
in  Europe,  it  is  noticeable  that  more  than  three  times  as  much 
territory  goes  to  Poland  as  Prance  received  in  the  much-diseust 
annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  following  table,  compiled 
from  '  The  Statesman's  Year-Book"  and  The  Geographical  Renew, 
gives  the  disposition  and  extent  of  the  lost  German  lands: 

Square 
Ionics 

German  territory  lost  to  France 5,604 

German  territory  lo.st  to  Denmark 1.53.3 

German  territory  lost  to  Poland 17,756 

G.erman  territory  lost  to  Belgium 386 

German  territory  lost  to  ^lemel 1,057 

German  territory  lost  to  Danzig 794 

The  Sarre  Basin  which  will  be  placed  under  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  League  of  Nations 751 

Total 27,881 

Further  territoi-y  may  be  lost  in  plebiscites  still  to  be  held. 
The  population  lost  to  Germany  with  the  alienated  territory,  as 
shown  above,  is  estimated  at  about  6,000,000,  not  including  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Sarre  Basin. 

This  reduced  and  fallen  Germany,  as  it  may  appear  from  cer- 
tain view-points,  does  not  seem  either  greatly,  reduced,  or  per- 
manently fallen,  to  French  statesmen  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Rhine.  There  is  a  motto  formed  in  letters  of  bronze  on  the  colos- 
sal monument  of  the  Emperor  William  I.  at  Coblenz  which  fits 
the  situation,  remarks  Paul  Le  Faivre,  writing  in  La  Revue  Uni- 
verselle  (Paris).  It  is  the  refrain  of  one  of  the  most  popular  songs 
sung  by  passengers  on  the  Rhine  steamers.  An  English  transla- 
tion of  the  French  translation  of  the  German  original  might  run: 

Close  up  your  faithful  ranks — 
The  good  old  days  will  come  again. 

"The  old  Rhine,  they  feel  it  running  in  their  veins  .  .  .  with 
its  majesty  and  its  attributes,"  says  this  observer,  who  sees 
everywhere  a  "reaction  against  the  vision  of  defeat  presented 
on  all  sides." 

The  division  which  the  League  of  Nations  made  of  the  dis- 
puted Silesian  territory,  as  shown  on  the  accompanying  map, 
roused  loud  German  protests.  Germany,  as  a  Berlin  eorre^ 
spondent  of  the  New  York  Times  understands  it,  loses  64 
per  cent,  of  the  Upper  Silesian  anthracite  production,  that  is, 
67  anthracite  coal  mines  which  last  year  produced  about  32,000,- 
000  tons.  She  loses  all  her  Upper  Silesian  zinc,  or  about  60  per 
cent,  of  her  former  total  zinc  production.  It  is  believed  that 
Germany  loses  about  63  per  cent,  of  the  Upper  Silesian  iron  in- 
dustries production,  about  1,500,000  tons  of  iron  and  stoel  prod- 
ucts. In  coal  deposits  German  experts  declare  they  are  losing 
86  per  cent,  of  ITppor  Silesian  anthracite,  or  42  per  cent,  of  all  tho 
former  Gorman  anthracite  deposits.  "The  turnips  for  tho  Ger- 
mans, tho  mines  for  the  Poles,"  is  one  German  editor's  bitter 
commentary  upon  this  loss  of  formerly  German  mining  area. 
A  number  of  British  economists  have  published  a  letter  to  the 
press  assorting  that  the  Upper  Silesian  decision  is  "perhaps  the 
severest  blow  to  the  prospects  of  peace  in  Europe  and  its  economic 
recovery."  They  feel  that  it  brings  the  day  of  German  default 
measurably  nearer,  since  Germany's  ability  to  pay  is  so  much 
diminished  by  the  loss  of  the  largest  Silesian  mineral  deposits. 

Tho  pro-League  Now  York  Evening  Post  answers  that — 

"A  league  decision,  arrived  at  after  due  judicial  d(4ib('ration 
and  after  a  solution  by  violence  and  diijlonuicy  had  failcil,  spoils 
loss  trouble  for  tho  future  than  a  decision  that  would  have  loft 
Poland  with  the  sense  that  it  had  been  cheated.  As  against 
German  discoiitont  W(>  must  weigh  the  gain  for  tlio  priiicipl« 
underlying  the  League  of  Nations  and  its  authority." 


6 


Shrunken  Russia  of  the  Soviets 


A"  VAST  IRREPARABLE  BREAKDOWN,"  as  a 
leading  British  publicist  exprest  his  "dominant  im- 
pression" of  Russia  in  its  first  throes  of  revolution,  has 
continued  to  be  the  dominant  impression  of  most  observers 
throughout  the  years  that  have  followed.  In  the  very  persis- 
tence of  this  "irreparable  breakdoT^Ti,"  however,  several  inves- 
tigators discover  hope  for  the  future.  The  "final  eoUapse  ot 
all  that  remains  of  modem  ci\-ilization  in  what  was  formerly  the 
Russian  Empire"  has  been  anticipated  for  so  long  that,  it  is 
argued,  the  matter  may  have  been  indefinitely  postponed. 
E\en  so  careful  a  critic  as  Isaiah  Bowman,  Director  of  the 
American  Geographical  Society  of  New  York,  suggests  that 
Russia  may  soon  be  in  process  of  "gathering  itself  together" 
rather  than  going  to  pieces.  The  Bolshevik  rulers  of  the  state,  it 
is  pointed  out,  have  modified  many  of  their  doctrines  which 
stood  in  the  way  of  conventional  bourgeois  development  of  the 
countrj',  and  contact  with  the  outside  world  is  increasing. 
Imports  from  Russia  into  Great  Britain,  which  were  valued  at 
only  £6,500,000  in  1918  had  risen  to  more  than  £34,000,000  in 
1920.  Exports  to  Russia  from  the  United  Kingdom  had  risen  in 
the  same  time  from  £298,000  to  almost  £12,000,000. 

"By  far  the  most  serious  politico-economic  problem  of  the 
present  is  the  reconstruction  of  Russia,"  writes  Mr.  Bowman  in 
his  recent  volume  "The  New  World:  Problems  in  Political 
Geography"  (World  Book  Company).  Reorganization,  he  be- 
lieves, may  be  "most  soundly  based  upon  the  traditional  and  dis- 
tinctive Russian  institutions  kno^vn  as  the  zemstvos  and  eoopera^ 
tive  societies."  He  continues,  going  back  to  the  conditions  pre- 
cedent to  the  present  disorganization: 

"The  break-up  of  the  Russian  Empire  now  seems  a  rather 
natural  event,  seeing  how  diverse  were  its  various  parts  in  cus- 
toms, ideals,  ethnography,  history,  and  mode  of  life.  The  ap- 
parent harmony  of  the  political  map  was  merely  the  expression 
of  centralized  imperial  power  exercised  upon  an  ignorant  peasan- 
try. Just  as  soon  as  industries  developed  trained  men  and  edu- 
cational f.icilities,  the  old  system  failed,  not  so  much  because  it 
was  ill  adapted  to  modern  needs,  as  because  it  ceased  to  function, 
particularly  in  the  world  war." 

When  revolution  took  hold  upon  the  war-shaken  and  disordered 
Empire,  in  the  spring  of  1917,  the  territory  controlled  by  Russia 
comprised  one-seventh  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe,  an  area 
of  some  8,.500,000  square  mUes.  The  present  area  actually  under 
the  Soviet  Government,  consisting  of  the  greater  portion  of  what 
was  formerly  Eluropean  Russia,  is  less  than  one-fourth  as  large. 
In  addition  to  Finland  and  Poland,  which  have  been  definitely 
set  up  as  independent  governments,  the  Soviets  have  recognized 
the  practical  independence  of  the  "Far  Eastern  Democratic  Re- 
public of  Siberia,"  and  Esthonia,  Latvia,  Lithuania,  Kuban, 
North  Caucasia,  Azerbaijan,  (ieorgia,  and  Russian  Armenia, 
with  total  areas  of  nearly  300,000  square  miles,  have  become 
either  independent  or  practically  so.  The  Soviet  Government 
asserts  its  control  in  most  of  these  terri;torios,  with  the  assis- 
tance of  a  "Red"  army  of  more  than  half  a  million  men,  the 
largest  standing  army  in  Europe.  The  total  population  of  the 
Republic  is  given  as  130,000,000  in  the  official  census  of  1920, 
as  against  a  population  of  some  180,000,000  for  the  whole  Empire 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 

The  th<H)ry  of  the  present  Russian  Govomnumt  is  thus  sum- 
marized by  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book,"  from  official  Soviet 
sources: 

"According  to  the  Constitution,  which  has  been  d(\clarod  a 
'fundamental  law'  of  the  Republic,  Russia  is  a  Republic  of  So- 
viets of  Workers',  Soldiers'  and  Peasants'  D(^lcgates;  and  all 
central  and  local  authority  is  vested  in  these  Soviets.  Private 
property  in  land  is  at)oli.shed,  all  land  being  the  common  property 
of  the  people;  all  forests,  mines,  waters  having  a  national  impor- 


tance, and  all  live  stock  and  fixtures,  model  estates  and  agricul- 
tural concerns  are  all  national  property.  The  state  owns  all 
factories,  mines,  railways,  and  other  means  of  production  and 
transport. 

"The  Russian  Republic  is  a  free  Socialist  community  of  all  the 
laboring  masses  of  Russia.  Freedom  of  conscience,  of  opinion,  of 
the  press,  and  of  meeting  are  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution. 
In  order  to  protect  the  conquests  of  the  Revolution,  universal 
military  ser\dce  is  incumbent  on  all  citizens.  The  privilege  of 
defending  the  Revolution  with  arms  is,  however,  reserved  for  the 
laboring  classes  only;  the  non-laboring  sections  of  the  population 
will  discharge  other  military  duties.  The  political  rights  of 
Russian  citizenship  will  be  granted  without  any  formalities  to 
foreigners  residing  in  the  territory  of  the  Russian  Republic  for 
purposes  of  labor. 

"The  franchise  is  enjoyed  irrespective  of  religion,  nationality, 
residence,  sex,  etc.,  liy  all  citizens  over  eighteen  years  of  age  who 
earn  their  livelihood  b_\'  productive  labor,  and  soldiers  and  sailors 
in  the  Red  Army  and  Navy. 

"Provision  is  also  made  in  the  Constitution  for  Local  Govern- 
ment by  means  of  Local  Soviets  in  \illages  and  towns,  with  dis- 
trict, provincial  and  territorial  Congresses." 

This  political  arrangement  has  been  criticized  on  the  ground 
that,  while  "the  American  citizen  speaks  pretty  directly  through 
his  congressman, 

"The  Russian  citizen  proceeds  through  his  soviet  to  pro-v-incial 
and  regional  congresses,  which  in  turn  lead  up  to  the  AU-Russian 
Congress  of  1500  members,  a  central  committee  of  250,  and 
thence  through  17  commissars  to  the  leaders,  such  as  Lenin  and 
Trotzky.  So  tortuous  a  channel  of  approach  to  authority  would 
try  the  spirit  of  an  educated  people:  to  the  Russian  masses  it 
presents  impossible  conditions  of  political  navigation." 

In  practise,  even  the  most  thorough  believers  in  the  So\-iet 
system  admit,  Bolshevism  in  Russia  has  produced  a  dictatorship 
greatly  resembling  the  bureaucratic  rule  of  the  czars.  This  "dic- 
tatorship of  the  proletariat"  includes  the  regulation  of  the 
workers  through  militarist  practises.  Leon  Trotzkyi  Bolshevist 
IVIinister  of  War,  quotes  with  approval  in  "The  Task  and  part  of 
the  trade  union"  (Petrogi-ad,  1921)  the  following  pronouncement: 

"The  industrial  front  is  the  most  important  front  of  the 
Russian  Revolution  and  every  citizen  must  become  a  labor  con- 
script. Deserters  will  find  no  quarter.  That  is  what  labor  con- 
scription, what  the  militarization  of  labor  means!  Who  will  deny 
the  proletarian  State  this  right  during  the  period  when  private 
ownership  of  the  means  and  instruments  of  production  and 
exchange  is  lieing  abolished?  Who  will  deny  it  the  duty  to  de- 
mand from  every  one  a  certain  amount  of  labor  in  the  interests 
of  the  community?  No  one  except  miserable  Philistines,  absolute 
fools  or  dishonest  demagogs!" 

"Why  has  state  enslavement  in  Russia  been  carried  to  a  limit, 
which  even  Russians  never  knew  before?"  asks  Professor  Peter 
Struve  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  the  Edinburgh  Renew. 
He  replies,  presenting  the  case  of  orthodox  individualism  against 
the  sort  of  communism  that  has  been  tried,  under  difficulties, 
in  Russia: 

"Precisely  because  the  Soviet  regime  not  only  abolished  the 
liberties  of  public  life,  but  also  abolished  individual  projjerty 
and  privati^  trade,  and  thus  cut  at  the  very  roots  of  the  tree  of 
I)ersonal  liberty  and  personal  dignity.  In  communist  Russia 
not  only  is  there  no  free  press — freedom  of  the  press  was  only 
cstablislied  in  Russia  in  190."> — there  is  no  private  press  at  all. 
The  railways  built  liy  the  capitalist  society  continue  to  exist, 
but  freedom  of  communication — one  of  the  expressions  of 
economic  freedom — has  been  abolished  more  completely  than 
over  before  in   the  history  of   Russia. 

"Th(!  Ru.ssian  experiment  has  in  fact  demonstrated  a  (ruth — 
which  to  most  minds  is  sufficituitly  iiulicaled  by  elementary 
reasoning — namely  that  the  abolition  of  private  jiroiierty  and  the 
ecinse(|uential  prevention  of  trade  involves  the  destruction  not 
only  of  economic  freedom  and  economic  prosperity  but  also  ot 
individual  freedom  iu  all  its  manifestations." 


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RUSSIA 

Soviet  Russia  in  Europe 
Soviet  Russian  control  in  Asfai 


I  .i  Territori«s  lost.'by  Russia  f  —•  '^^....liy'i, 

Finland.    Esthonia.   Latvia.  Lithu- 


ania, Poland  and  Bessarabia. 


Urt  P'a*^"" 


^1^'; 


Sa>J>P'' 


-^^fc.l'.'r.V      5vi..X,  ^       \_  ,       S 


p    E    '"    ^ 

■y^  Copyrighl.  1921  by  Funk  i  Wagnalls  Co..  New  >  or.: 

.MESOl?pTAMIA  *\ 


The  Matlheivs-Norlhrup  Works.  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 


L-jngitude  East    10"  from  Gtocnwicli 


Greater  Britain 


THE  COAST  LINES  OF  THE  WORLD,  which  are  said 
to  have  been  "the  frontiers  of  Britain"  ever  since  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  include  nearly  900,000  more  square 
miles  of  British  territory,  as  one  result  of  the  World  War. 
The  British  Lion,  the  world's  publicists  agree  with  varjing  de- 
grees of  admiration,  rancor,  or  philosophical  resignation,  has 
absorbed  the  greater  part  of  the  territories  and  other  emoluments 
removed  from  the  Triple  Entente.  British  apologists  reply  by 
mentioning  "England's  manifest  destiny,"  and  arguing  that, 
considering  the  respective  parts  played  in  the  conflict  b\  those 
whi  have  profited  by  it,  England  has  been  not  only  fail  but 
liberal.  The  actual  gain  in  square  miles  of  the  earth's  area  which 
has  c^me  under  British  control  since  1914,  computed  on  the  basis 
of  figures  coUeeted  by  the  Matthews-Nortlirup  Map  Works  and 
"The  Statesman's  Year-Book,"  is  882,22,5,  which  represents  an  in- 
crease of  approximately  7  per  cent,  in  the  area  of  the  Empire  on 
which  the  sun  never  sets.  The  population  of  the  newly  acquired 
territories  is  placed  at  11,938,132.  The  little  island  kingdom  off 
the  northwest  shoulder  of  Europe,  containing  121,033  square 
mi'es  of  area  all  told,  is  now  the  head  of  an  Empire  more  than 
four  times  as  large  as  the  United  States,  with  a  total  present 
po-i'ation  of  about  442,000,000. 

Along  with  this  increase,  however,  has  gone  a  loosening  of  the 
bonds  of  empire  which  such  students  of  international  affairs  as 
Gene'-al  Jan  Christian  Smuts  of  South  Africa  and  H.  G.  Wells 
consider  among  the  most  significant  developments  of  English 
history.  Ireland  presents  a  particularly  violent  example  of  a 
wide-spread  state  of  mind.  The  dominions  are  taking  to  heart 
Kipling's  description,  more  picturesque  than  literal  when  it  was 
made,  of  the  Canadian  attitude:  "Daughter  in  my  mother's 
house,  but  mistress  in  my  own."  General  Smuts,  objects  one 
cri*ic.  H.  Dean  Bamford,  LL.D.,  writing  in  The  National  Review 
(London),  has  gone  so  far  as  to  declare  the  practical  autonomy  of 
the  dominions,  not  only  in  their  internal  affairs,  but  in  their  for- 
eign relations  also.  His  statement  that  "if  war  is  to  affect  them, 
they  must  declare  it;  if  peace  is  made  in  respect  to  them,  they 
have  to  sign  it,"  protests  this  critic,  means  that — 

"The  various  Dominions  and  the  Mother  Country  are  now  no 
more  united  than  were  England  and  Hanover  under  George  I. 
They  have  become  a  mere  congeries  of  separate  and  independent 
States  which  happen  to  have  the  same  person  as  their  constitu- 
tional sovereign,  and  are  bound  together  only  by  a  feeling  of 
kinship,  by  community  of  interests  and  by  a  more  or  less  effective 
liaison  which  makes  cohesion  in  the  larger  matters  of  foreign 
affairs  likely  for  some  time  to  come.  The  unity  of  the  Empire 
has  ceased,  and  its  place  has  been  taken  by  a  probability  of 
unanimity,  the  result  of  a  kind  of  entente  cordiale  between  the 
former  component  parts." 

This  view  is  put  in  a  slightly  different  light  by  H.  G.  WeUs, 
who  joins  Premier  Smuts  in  advocating  more  prerogatives  for  the 
dominions.  "A  very  fine  feat  of  statecraft,"  he  calls  "the  con- 
version of  Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South  Africa 
from  mere  administered  dependencies  into  quasi-independent 
allies."  Looking  back  to  1914,  he  gives  the  following  summary  of 
that  "unique  p'llitical  combination,"  the  British  Empire,  which 
endures  little  changed,  except,  perhaps,  in  spirit  and  intention: 

"First  and  central  to  the  whole  systtan  was  the  'crowned 
republic'  of  the  United  British  Kingdoms,  including  (againsi  the 
will  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  Irish  people)  Ireland.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  British  Parliament,  made  up  of  the  three  united 
parliaments  of  England,  Scot  land  and  Iniaiid  del  criiiinea  the  head- 
ship, the  quality,  and  the  policy  of  the  ministry,  and  determines  it 
largely  on  considerations  arising  out  of  British  domestic  politics. 
It  is  this  ministry  which  is  the  effective  supreme  government, 
with  powers  of  peace  and  war,  over  all  the  rest  of  tlie  enii)ire; 

"Next  in  order  of  polilienl  importance  to  the  Brilish  States 
were  the  'crowned  rcpul)lies'  of  Australia,  Canada,  Newfound- 
land (the  oldest  British  possession,  l.")H3),  New  Zealand,  and 
South    Africa,    all    practically    iiidependeni    and    self-governing 


states  in  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  hut  each  vn\h  a  representa- 
tive of  the  Crown  appointed  by  the  Government  m  office: 

"iNext  the  Indian  Empire,  an  extension  of  the  empire  of  the 
Great  Mogul,  with  its  dependent  and  'protected'  states  reaching 
now  from  Baluchistan  to  Burmah,  in  all  of  which  empire  the 
British  Crown  and  the  Indian  Office  (under  Parliamentary  con- 
trol) played  the  role  of  the  original  Turkoman  dj-nasty; 

"Then  the  ambiguous  possession  of  Egypt,  still  nominally  a 
part  of  the  Turkish  Empire  and  still  retaining  its  own  monarch. 
The  Khedive,  but  under  almost  despotic  British  official  rule; 

"Then  still  more  ambiguous  ' Anglo-Egj-ptian'  Sudan  prov- 
ince, occupied  and  administered  jointly  by  the  British  and  by 
the  (British  controlled)  Egyptian  Government; 

"Then  a  number  of  partially  self-governing  communities, 
some  British  in  origin  and  some  not,  with  elected  legislatures  and 
an  appointed  executive,  such  as  Malta,  Jamaica  and  Bermuda; 

"Then  the  Crown  colonies,  in  which  the  rule  of  the  British 
Home  Government  (through  the  Colonial  Office),  verged  on 
autocracy,  as  in  Ceylon,  Trinidad  and  Fiji  (where  there  was  an 
appointed  councO),  and  Gibraltar  and  St.  Helena  (where  there 
was  a  governor); 

"Then  great  areas  of  (chiefly)  tropical  lands,  raw-product 
areas,  with  politically  weak  and  under-civilized  native  commu- 
nities, which  were  nominally  protectorates,  and  administered 
either  by  a  High  Commissioner  set  over  native  chiefs  (as  in  Basu- 
toland)  or  over  a  chartered  company  (as  in  Rhodesia).  .  .  . 

"No  single  office  and  no  single  brain  had  ever  comprehended 
the  British  Empire  as  a  whole.  It  was  a  mixture  of  growths  and 
accumulations  entirely  different  from  anything  that  has  ever  been 
oaded  an  empire  before.  It  guaranteed  a  wide  peace  and  security; 
that  is  why  it  was  endured  and  sustained  by  many  men  of  the 
'subject'  races — in  spite  of  official  tyrannies  and  insufficiencies, 
and  of  much  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  'home'  public." 

Mr.  Wells  traces  a  "deterioration  in  the  quality  of  British 
Imperialism  in  relation  to  'subject  peoples,'"  in  the  last  few 
decades,  and  argues  for  an  impartial  world-court  of  appeal, 
to  do  away  with  the  wrong  that  must  follow  when  "any  civilized 
country  is  ruled  by  the  legislature  of  another."  He  thus  takes  a 
sort  of  middle  ground  in  the  present  ivade-spread  discussion  of 
England's  imperialism.  A  small  group  of  English  publicists 
opposes  the  retention  of  the  colonies  in  any  form,  while  a  con- 
siderably larger  bloc  agrees  with  the  general  position  of  Com- 
mander Lord  Teignmouth,  who  writes  on  "Our  Manifest  Destiny 
— Egypt,"  in  The  Nineteenth  Century  and  After  (London,  Novem- 
ber, 1921).  The  writer  quotes  Professor  Ernst  Haeckel  and 
Admiral  Dewey,  among  others,  in  praise  of  "the  British  genius 
for  founding  and  governing  colonies,"  and  concludes: 

"The  continuous  effort,  the  mental  strain  essential  to  the 
maintenance  of  our  position  as  a  World  Power,  may  cause 
despondency  amongst  dilettante  politicians;  but  effort  is  the  very 
Salt  of  life  to  young  and  \'igorous  Britons.  There  is  no  standing 
still  in  this  world;  stagnation,  ca'canny,  means  retrogression. 
And  to  recede  from  the  position  which  has  been  attained  with 
such  infinite  labor  would  be  an  unparalleled  act  of  cowardice. 
Better  to  die  fighting  than  to  incur  the  contumely  of  posterity 
as  'slackers.' " 

The  new  British  colonial  possessions,  which  bring  the  total 
aroa  of  the  Empire  up  to  .some  13,.')00,00()  square  miles,  are  thus 
catalogued  by  the  Matthews-Northrup  Map  Works: 


*  Area  m 
Sq.  Miles 

Palestine  (British  Mandate) 9,000 

Mesopotamia  (British  Mandate).  .  .  .  54,540 
Tanganayika  Ter.  (British   >landate)  365,180 
Southwest  Africa  (Un.  of  S.  Af.  Man- 
date)    322,400 

Togoland  (British  Mandate)      .     ...  12,.500 

CJameroon  (British  Mandate) 30,000 

New  Guinea,  etc.   (Australian   Man- 
date)    87,300 

Western  Samoa  (New  Zealand  Man- 
date)   1,300 

Nauru  Island  (British  Mandate)    ...  5 


882.225 


Estimated 

Population 

()47,850 

2,S49,'282 

7,000,000 

200,000 
30(),(KX) 
400,000 

600,000 

41,000 
? 

11,938,132 


in 


SHETLAND 
ISLANDS 

f)uN8T 


■l"  WEeTRHV-fl"  «  N.BONALOSHAY 

"T  '■J  ./piANDAV 

B0W6AV        fl*^  I 


BRITISH  ISLES 

ENGLAND,  WALES, 
SCOTLAND  and  IRELAND 


Comparative  territorial.extent  of*the  British  Empire 
and  its  Colonial  Possessions,  (including  mandates.) 

a      ' 


1.  Extent  of  the  British,lsle=,  taken  as  a  unit,  121,633.sq.  jrii, 

2.  Extent  of  British  Enfpire  before  the  war,  12.786.472  sq.  mi 

3.  Extent  of  territory  gained  through  the  war,  882.225  sq.  mi, 


'V's.       A  T  L  A  N  T 
O  C  E  A 


Longitude 


0  Longitude     East 


11 


The  New  Republic  of  Austria 


y  'T'NE  CAPITALS  et  une  banlieue  paysanne"  (a  capital 
#  /  and  a  countrified  subizrb) — these  only  remain,  in 
K^  the  words  of  a  \\Titer  in  Le  Figaro  (Paris),  of  that 
proud  and  warlike  Austria  which  was  once  the  center  of  the 
great  Austro-Hungarian  Empire.  The  present  Republic  of  Aus- 
tria is  slightly  smaller  in  territorial  extent  than  our  own  State  of 
Maine,  and  contains  a  total  population  somewhat  larger  than 
New  York  city's.  Out  of  a  population  of  approximately  fifty 
million  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  of  which  twenty-eight 
million  belonged  to  Austria  proper,  only  6,139,197  fall  to  the 
new  Austria.  Of  its  territorv.  comprising  115,903  square  miles 
in  1914,  it  has  now  32,066.  By  t,Le  terms  of  the  constitution, 
which  was  adopted  October  1,  1920,  and  came  into  force  on 
November  10  of  the  same  year,  Austria,  says  "The  Statesman's 
Year-Book,"  "is  declared  to  be  a  Democratic  republic  com- 
posed of  seven  provinces  and  the  City  of  Vienna." 

No  other  country  of  the  new  Europe,  victor  or  vanquished, 
finds  itself  in  such  an  unfortunate  situation  as  the  result  of  the 
changed  boundaries  created  by  the  war  as  does  the  new  Austrian 
Republic.  The  five  vowels.  A,  E,  I,  O,  U,  so  often  associated 
with  the  colors  and  the  insignia  of  the  old  Empire,  and  said  to 
signifj'  AustritB  Est  Imperare  Orbi  Universo — "It  is  Austria's 
part  to  rule  the  world" — have  fulfilled  the  interpretation  put 
upon  them  by  a  French  wit,  Austria  Erit  In  Orbe  Ultima — 
"Austria  shall  be  hindmost  in  the  world."  The  real  tragedy  in 
the  country's  present  situation,  according  to  a  wTiter  in  "Harms- 
worth's  New  Atlas"  (London),  appears  in  the  fact  that  nearly 
two  million  of  the  country's  population  are  concentrated  in  the 
city  of  Vienna,  while  most  of  the  agricultural  lands  from  which 
this  great  urban  population  used  to  draw  have  been  assigned  to 
the  new  countries  to  north  and  south.  Austria  has  been  shorn 
of  its  granaries,  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  In  the  old  days  of  the 
Empire  the  two  million  concentrated  in  the  capital  city  did  not 
seem  very  disproportionate;  but  the  proportion  that  now  exists, 
amounting  to  more  than  a  quarter,  is  making  necessary  much 
economic  and  social  readjustment.  The  advantageous  geogi-aph- 
ical  situation  of  Vienna,  at  the  crossroads  of  the  great  European 
routes  from  west  to  east  and  from  Baltic  to  Mediterranean,  with 
the  Moravian  Gate  to  the  north,  the  Pressburg  Gate  to  the  east, 
the  splendid  waterway  afforded  by  the  Danube — all  these  factors 
are  unchanged.  Consequently  the  present  crisis  through  which 
the  city  is  passing  provides  an  illustration  of  the  effect  of  purely 
political  changes.  The  interesting  problem,  according  to  the 
writer,  is  this:  Will  Vienna  escape  the  fate  of  Rome?  Has  the 
world  changed  as  a  consequence  of  modern  capitalistic  develop- 
ment so  that  the  greatness  of  a  city  depends  on  jts  own  advan- 
tages rather  than  on  the  political  power  of  the  state  in  which 
it  lies? 

An  attempt  was  made  at  the  recent  partitioning  of  the  coun- 
try, says  the  same  authority,  to  include  all  the  essentially  German 
localities  in  the  little  Austrian  Republic  which  contains  the  heart 
and  head  of  the  old  Empire.  Physically,  the  country  may  be 
divided  into  two  main  areas:  The  Alpine  lands  which  stretch 
from  Vorarlberg  to  Styria,  and  that  section  of  the  Danube  Valley 
between  the  German  frontier  at  Passau  and  a  point  where  three 
countries  meet  at  a  town  with  three  names — Bratislava  (the 
present  official  Czech  narne),  Pozsony  (the  former  official  Magyar 
name),  and  Pressburg  (the  commonly  used  German  name). 
These  two  sections  include  the  old  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Austria,  Salzburg,  and  Vorarlberg,  parts  of  Styria,  Carinthia, 
and  Tyrol,  and  a  strip  of  former  Hungarian  territory  along  tlio 
old  boundary  between  Au.stria  and  Hungary.  In  the  south  of 
Carinthia,  where  lie  the  two  sections  whose  fate  is  to  bo  decided 
Ijy  a  plebiscite,  it  has  been  arranged  that,  if  the  voting  in  the 
larger  and  more  southerly  area  goes  in  favor  of  Austria,  both 
areas  are  to  remain  Austrian.     There  are  a  number  of  Slovene  in- 


habitants in  this  section,  and  the  result  is  doubtful.  If 
the  vote  goes  against  Austria,  then  a  second  ])lebiscite  will 
decide  the  fate  of  the  smaller  district,  which  includes  the  city  of 
Klagenfurt. 

As  far  back  as  history  carries  any  record  of  the  country  now 
known  as  the  Austrian  Republic,  notes  a  writer  in  the  latest 
edition  of  the  "Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  the  region  around  the 
present  city  of  Vienna  has  been  known  as  a  great  meeting-place 
of  east  and  west,  of  north  and  south.  Like  Venice,  it  drew 
from  "the  gorgeous  East,"  and  its  civilization  long  since  began 
to  be  colored  by  the  luxury  and  fondness  for  sensuous  beauty 
and  pleasure  which  distinguish  the  capital  even  in  the  misfor- 
tunes that  have  befallen  it  to-day.  Strange  merchandise  and 
strange  peoples  and  customs  gathered  there  from  east  and  west 
by  way  of  the  Danube,  and  from  north  and  south  between  the 
Baltic  and  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  southern  part 
of  the  country  was  inhabited,  before  the  opening  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  by  a  Celtic  tribe,  called  the  Taiirisci,  who  were  con- 
quered by  the  Romans  about  14  b.  o.,  and  under  Roman  rule, 
Vindobona,  the  modern  Vienna,  became  a  place  of  importance. 
In  late  Roman  times  the  country  was  an  easy  prey  for  the  bar- 
barians. During  the  period  of  the  great  migrations  it  was 
ravished  in  quick  succession  by  a  number  of  these  tribes,  promi- 
nent among  whom  were  the  Huns.  The  valley  of  the  Danube 
became  a  melting-pot  for  all  tribes  and  races,  including  a  large 
admixture  of  Slavic  peoples  from  the  northeast. 

At  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  during  which  Vienna  was  a 
bone  of  contention  among  many  leaders  and  factions — "Haps- 
burgs  and  Guelfs,"  as  Lowell  wrote,  "whose  thin  bloods  crawl 
do'mi  from  some  A-ietor  in  a  border  brawl" — the  kingdom  emerged 
with  an  area  of  some  fifty  thousand  square  miles,  eighteen  thou- 
sand more  than  it  has  to-day.  It  was  not  untU  after  the  battle 
of  Leipzig  led  up  to  the  great  international  Congress  of  Vienna, 
however,  that  Austria  fully  realized  her  ambitions  of  conquest, 
which  held  scores  of  hostUe  races  in  subjection  until  the  recent 
war  set  them  free.  Prince  Metternieh,  whose  name  is  synony- 
mous with  all  that  is  skilful  and  unscrupulous  in  "secret  diplo- 
macy," so  played  upon  racial  rivalries,  both  during  the  Con- 
gress and  afterward,  that  the  great  ramshackle  Empire  was  not 
only  held  together,  but  increased  in  size.  "Hungarian  regiments 
garrisoned  Italy,  Italian  regiments  guarded  Galicia,  Poles  occu- 
pied Austria,  and  Austrians,  Hungary."  Bosnia  and  Herzego- 
vina, were  annexed,  contrary  to  promises  and  treaties,  in  1909, 
and  the  way  opened  for  the  Serajevo  murder  that  was  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  the  World  War,  five  years  later.  "Divide  and 
rule,"  the  famous  motto  in  which  Metternieh  summed  up  his 
policy,  to-day  carries  all  the  bitterly  ironical  implications  of  that 
once  popular  German  toast,  "Der  Tag." 

Against  the  movement  that  has  arisen  in  both  Germany  and 
Austria  to  unite  the  two  countries,  on  the  ground  that  the  genius 
of  both  is  essentially  German,  the  Allies,  and  especially  the 
French,  have  opposed  both  force  and  argument.  Vienna,  in 
despair  of  assistance  from  Allied  sources,  is  turning  again  toward 
Berlin,  report  two  Froneh  now.si)apor  correspondents  who  re- 
cently investigated  conditions  there  for  a  Paris  journal.  The 
citizen  of  Vienna  will  say,  willingly  enough,  that  he  is  really  a 
German,  they  report,  and  they  sum  up  the  anti-German  position 
in  the  following  reply  which,  they  say,  the  Allies  should  make  and 
are  making: 

"  'Your  language  is  German,  but  your  blood  is  not,  and  the 
spirit  of  your  city  is  even  less.  France  and  Italy  have  stamped, 
in  the  course  of  time,  an  ineffaccalile  iiiii)rint  both  upon  your 
fine  buildings  and  your  souls.  In  comparing  your  city  with  an- 
other ontsicie  your  boundaries,  certainly  no  one  W'ould  choose  a 
German  city,  but  much  more  probably  a  city  of  the  north  of 
Italy,  Milan,  for  e.xaniple.'  .  .  .  Vienna  is  not,  and  should  not 
become,  a  (iernian  city;  it  slioiild  lie  inhrn.-ilionai." 


19 


CO  "     -  °  -     " 


I— c    2"  n." 


■j;  I:  .2  n  S 

i  s  "^  = 


s  Sis-Si  s-i.2g;.£o|i.|  «'i=^ 

•^      ^ta^SM      SCO     ''^     lA     tDtr-      rtga 


13 


The  New  Kingdom  of  Hungary 


THE  REDUCED  AND  HUMBLED  HUNGARY  left 
by  tlie  war  was  the  last  of  the  major  partners  of  the 
Teutonic  Alliance  to  submit  to  the  will  of  the  victorious 
western  nations;  and  if  she  has  anything  to  say  in  the  matter 
she  will  be  the  first,  at  least  in  the  opinion  of  several  leading 
American  and  British  publicists,  to  rebel  against  the  Peace 
Treaty,  which  she  finally  signed  on  the  fourth  of  June,  1920.  Less 
harshly  dealt  with  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  than  was  Austria, 
her  old  partner  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire,  she  is  said  to  be 
far  less  ready  to  accept  the  consequences.  The  Hungary  of  to- 
day, as  Eugene  S.  Bagger  sums  up  Anglo-American  opinion  in  The 
Current  Hislorij  Magazine  (New  York),  is  inspired  by  "the  three 
R's  of  Magyar  jingoism:  Restoration,  Revenge,  Reconquest." 

The  recent  history  of  the  country,  leading  up  to  the  second 
attempt  of  former  Emperor  Charles  of  Austria-Hungary  to  seize 
the  power,  and  resulting  in  his  exile,  is  considered  especially  il- 
luminating by  critics  who  hold  this  \iew.  On  October  31,  1918, 
to  quote  the  historical  summary  of  "The  Statesman's  Year 
Book,"  a  revolution  broke  out  in  Hungary  with  the  object  of 
establishing  a  republic  and  making  the  country  independent  of 
Austria.  On  November  13  King  Charles  issued  a  letter  of  abdi- 
cation, and  on  November  16,  1918,  Hungary  was  proclaimed  an 
independent  republic.  "The  Hungarian  People's  Republic,"  to 
give  it  its  official  name,  and  the  lilierally  inclined  Count  Michael 
Karolyi  became  Pro\'isional  President.  The  two  Houses  of  the 
Legislature  were  abolished,  and  their  place  taken  by  a  Provisional 
National  Assembly.  The  Karolyi  regime  continued  until  March 
22,  1919,  when  the  Count  resigned  in  consequence  of  the  inter- 
ference by  the  Allies  in  the  matter  of  the  disputed  boundary  be- 
tween Hungary  and  Roumania.  Count  Karolyi's  Cabinet  was 
succeeded  by  a  Soviet  Government,  under  the  leadership  of  Bela 
Kun,  which  proclaimed  the  dictatorship  of  the  proletariat.  An 
opposition  government  was  soon  set  up  at  Arad  and  Szeged, 
which,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Roumanian  army,  swept  away 
the  Soviet  rulers.  Bela  Kun's  "Red  Terror"  was  succeeded  by  a 
"White  Terror"  of  reaction,  which  neutral  observers  found 
equally  tyrannical  and  bloody.  Elections,  held  under  the  author- 
ity of  the  new  government,  resulted  in  a  strongly  conservative 
parliament.  A  Regent,  officially  styled  "Protector  of  the 
Magyar  Republic,"  was  elected  in  the  person  of  Admiral  Nicholas 
von  Horthy.  Shortly  after  his  induction  into  office,  a  government 
order  was  promulgated  to  the  effect  that  "Hungary  was  a  Mon- 
archy, that  the  official  style  of  the  Ministry  was  'Royal  Hunga- 
rian Ministry,'  that  the  nation  should  be  described  as  a  Monarchy 
in  all  official  documents,  and  that  the  Royal  Arms  were  to  be 
adopted  again."  A  general  impr.  .^sion  tha^  F^^iiiy  was  merely 
"keeping  the  throne  warm  for  ex-Lmperor  Charles  "  was  dissipated 
when  Charles  made  his  attempt  to  come  back.  Admiral  Horthy 's 
hand  may  have  been  forced,  as  the  Philadelphia  Record  believes, 
by  the  Allies,  and  more  particularly  by  Roumania,  Jugo-Slavia, 
and  Czecho-Slovakia,  "all  of  which  acquired  large  blocks  of  Hun- 
garian territory  in  its  partial  dismemberment,  and  which  now 
constitute  the  Little  Entente." 

Nevertheless,  observed  the  Pittsburgh  Dispatch,  "The  suspi- 
cion that  the  restoration  of  Charles  to  the  throne  is  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time,  in  view  of  Pjuropean  diplomatic  dickering  and  mili- 
tary strategy,  will  not  down,"  and  the  Troy  Record  thus  reaches 
the  same  general  conclusion : 

"The  life  figuratively  went  out  of  Austria  atid  Hungary  with 
the  fall  of  the  proud  and  historic  House:  of  Hapslmrg-  Charles  is 
the  legitimate  representative  of  that  House,  and  there  unciues- 
tionably  is  very  inten.se  and  wide-spread  sentiments  in  his  favor 
in  both  Hungary  and  Austria.  Such  sentiment  only  awaits  the 
opportunity  for  expressing  itself.  That  is  why  a  sudden  move 
as  that  made  by  Charles  is  always  apt  to  meet  with  success." 

As  soon  as  the  Magyar  nation  gets  over  its  political  troubles, 


in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  J.  Poltera,  a  Swiss  economist,  who  lately 
visited  the  country  and  whose  report  is  translated  by  The  Lining 
Age  (Boston),  the  country  has  an  excellent  chance  to  become 
prosperous.  Orographically,  the  Republic  consists  of  high 
mountain  ranges  surrounding  an  immense  fertile  plain.  The 
cultivation  of  the  soil  is  the  chief  industry,  but  the  land  is  also 
rich  in  minerals.  Manufactures  have  not  been  largely  developed, 
except  those  which  produce  malt  and  spirituous  liquors. 

The  development  of  its  resources  will  not  be  retarded  by  any 
such  unequal  division  of  the  population  between  city  and  country 
as  is  noticeable  in  the  neighboring  country  of  Austria.  The  new 
state  is  roughly  about  one-third  the  size  of  the  old  Kingdom  of 
Hungary.  In  the  years  shortly  preceding  the  war,  the  "Realm 
of  the  Crown  of  St.  Stephen,"  as  Hungarian  Monarchists  have 
dubbed  their  fatherland  in  deference  to  one  of  its  earliest  and 
greatest  heroes,  included  125,402  square  miles  of  territory,  some 
4,000  more  than  the  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Its 
population,  according  to  the  census  of  1910,  was  20,886,487. 
The  new  boundaries  cut  its  territorial  extent  practically  in  half. 
Le  Correspondent,  a  Liberal  Catholic  bimonthly  of  Paris,  pre- 
sumably sympathetic  with  the  present  Government,  presents 
this  pessimistic  view: 

"The  Peace  Treaty  has  deprived  Hungary  of  more  than  70 
per  cent,  of  its  territory,  and  60  per  cent,  of  its  former  inhabitants. 
Among  the  latter  are  three  and  a  half  million  Magyars,  or  about 
one-fourth  of  the  nation.  It  has  given  Hungary  almost  impossi- 
ble frontiers  from  either  the  strategic  or  the  economic  point  of 
\'iew.  They  follow  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  leaving  in  the 
hands  of  the  neighboring  governments  the  natural  market-places, 
transverse  railway  lines,  and  military  approaches.  The  country 
has  lost  46  per  cent,  of  its  factories,  60  per  cent,  of  its  coal-fields, 
and  65  per  cent,  of  its  wheat^lands.  It  has  lost  85  per  cent,  of  its 
forests,  and  95  per  cent,  of  its  water-power. 

"This  may  seem  a  dark  picture.  However,  in  spite  of  its  losses 
the  country  still  possesses  important  resources  with  wliich  it  can 
build  up  a  thriving  foreign  trade.  But  such  trade  presupposes 
friendly  relations  with  its  neighbors.  Such  relations  do  not  e.'dst 
in  Central  Europe. 

"It  would  be  impossible  to  And  a  single  Hungarian  to-day 
who  accepts  the  present  dismemberment  of  his  country  as  final. 
The  nation  believes  with  absolute  unanimity  that  its  gcogi'aphical 
and  economic  unity  will  eventually  be  restored.  Hungarians  still 
fancy  that  they  excel  their  neighbors  in  morale,  patriotism,  and 
race-spirit.  This  is  a  sentiment  fostered  by  centuries  of  over- 
lordship  over  neighboring  peoples. 

"Consequently  the  Peace  Treaty  has  left  in  Central  Europe  an 
unreconciled  nation,  which  refuses  to  accept  its  terms,  and  which 
considers  it  not  only  a  right,  but  a  duty,  to  overthrow  that  treaty 
at  the  first  opportunity. 

"However,  the  country  will  not  be  strong  enough  to  do  this 
without  a  powerful  army  and  sound  economic  recovery.  But 
these  two  tilings  are  incompatible,  tt  Hungary  tries  to  maintain 
a  strong  military  cstabhshment,  it  will  stifle  the  possibility  of 
economic  recovery.  The  nation  can  recover  its  health  only  by 
forgetting  the  past.     But  it  will  not  forget." 

The  mixture  of  races  that  went  to  form  the  old  Kingdom 
(Magyarorszfig)  has  been  somewhat  "unscrambled"  by  the  new 
division  of  the  land.  In  1900,  according  to  figures  collected  for 
the  last  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  the  population 
consisted  of  approximately  8,500,000  Magyars,  3,000,000  Rou- 
manians, 2,000,000  Slovaks,  2,0(X),f)00  Germans,  and  a  scattering 
of  a  dozen  other  nationalities.  The  attempt  to  "Magyarizo" 
these  foreign  elements  resulted  in  a  large  emigration  to  America. 
Rtaurning  emigrants,  carrying  with  them  American  ideas  and 
American  money,  are  said  to  have  played  a  large  part  in  iho 
break-up  of  the  old  despotism. 

Hungary  still  is  "a  question  mark,"  admits  Isaiah  Bowman, 
Director  of  the  American  Geographical  Society  of  New  York, 
reaching  much  the  same  conclusions  in  his  chapter  on  "The 
New  Hungary"  in  his  book,  "The  New  World:  Problems  in 
Political  Geography"  (World  Book  Company). 


14 


16 


The  New  Czecho-Slovakian  Republic 


A  FEW  MONTHS  before  that  fateful  August  of  1914 
brought  the  most  world-unsettling  war  of  all  times, 
two  English  geographers  completed  a  map  of  Europe 
in  which  the  boundaries  were  laid  out  according  to  racial  affini- 
ties, not  on  the  political  lines  then  accepted.  Their  map  was 
prophetic  of  a  change  which  was  coming  sooner  than  they 
dreamed.  In  the  new  geography  of  Europe,  now  almost  com- 
pleted, national  boundaries  follow  this  ethnographical  chart 
much  more  closely  than  they  do  the  maps  of  yesterday.  The 
new  Czecho-Slovakian  Republic,  in  particular,  almost  exactly 
coincides  T^dth  the  territory  allotted  racially  to  the  Czechs  and 
Slovaks.  The  new  nation  that  has  arisen  out  of  the  former 
pro-\Tnce  is  larger  than  either  the  new  Austria  or  the  new  Hungary 
left  from  the  disintegrated  Austro-Hungarian  Empire.  Indeed, 
this  new  republic  is  now  almost  as  large  as  Austria  and  Hungary 
together. 

The  term  Czecho-Slovak,  as  the  two  English  geographers  and 
ethnologists  mentioned  above  point  out  ("A  Historical  Atlas 
of  Modem  Europe  from  1789  to  1914,"  by  C.  Grant  Robertson 
and  J.  G.  Bartholomew,  published  by  the  Oxford  University 
Press),  covers  two  branches  of  the  same  West  Slav  nation: 
the  7,000,000  Czechs  of  Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Silesia,  and  the 
3,000.000  Slovaks  of  Slovakia,  who  speak  a  dialect  of  Czech. 
Racially  close  together  tho  the  two  peoples  are,  time  and  the 
unlucky  chance  which  made  the  Czechs  vassals  of  Austria,  while 
the  Slovaks  were  turned  over  to  Hungary,  have  brought  con- 
siderable differences.  By  the  terms  of  a  recent  law,  Czech  is 
made  the  official  language  for  Bohemia  and  Mora\-ia,  and 
Slovak  for  Slovakia.  Behind  these  differences  is  the  significant 
fact  that  they  both  have  the  same  Bible.  Intermixt  with 
Czechs  and  Slovaks  is  a  large  German  and  Magyar  element, 
estimated  at  35  per  cent,  of  the  total  before  the  war.  At  last 
year's  national  elections,  says  The  Current  History  Magazine 
(New  York),  the  German  parties  polled  a  total  of  1,422,036  votes 
as  against  3,096,391  polled  by  the  Czechs.  These  proportions 
indicate  a  Czecho-German  problem,  comments  this  authority, 
which  only  time  and  statesmanship  can  solve. 

The  area  and  population  of  the  Czecho-Slovak  RepubUe, 
together  with  its  natural  advantages,  give  it  a  foremost  place 
among  the  new  nations  of  Europe.  Territorially,  as  a  wricer  in 
■'The  Statesman's  Year-Book"  observes,  it  consists  of  Bohemia, 
Mora^-ia,  Slovakia,  Silesia  and  Autonomous  Ruthenia.  Its 
complete  area  is  given  as  56,316  square  miles,  and  its  popula- 
tion, according  to  estimates  by  the  experts  of  the  Mattliews- 
Northrup  Works  is  at  present  approximately  14,000,000.  Slo- 
vakia and  Ruthenia  supply  most  of  the  territory  to  the  new 
Republic,  or  25,309  square  miles,  as  against  20,065  for  Bohemia, 
but  Bohemia's  population  is  set  at  6,769,548  according  to  the 
census  of  1910,  as  against  3,654,435  for  tho  two  other  territories, 
The  country  has  been  listed  as  predominantly  Roman  Catholic, 
the  census  of  1910  crediting  11,836,933  to  that  religion  as  against 
976,.567  to  Protestant  faiths.  However,  in  January,  1920,  says 
"The  Statesman's  Year-Book, "  "the  reformed  clergy  of  Czecho- 
slovakia decided  to  withdraw  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope 
and  to  found  a  National  Church."  Appro.ximately  30  per  cent. 
of  the  clergy  of  tho  country,  on  the  authority  of  the  Czecho- 
slovak Consul-General  in  Nov/  York  City,  are  included  in  this 
movement.  Tho  chief  differences  between  this  n(;w  church  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  body  from  which  it  has  seceded  lie  in  the 
facts  that  the  National  Church  permits  its  clergy  to  marry,  and 
stipulates  that  all  services  must  bo  conducted,  not  in  Latin,  but 
in  the  national  tongue. 

Historians  will  find  in  this  situation  a  suggestion  tlwit  (lie  Iimd 
of  John  Has  is  true  to  its  traditions,  for  in  the  history  of  Bohemia 
similar  religious  disagreemonts  with  Rome  have  playerl  a  large 
part.     Hus,  who  criticized   tho  Roman  Catholic  clergy  some- 


what in  Martin  Luther's  way,  even  while  remaining  a  Catholic, 
was  biu-ned  as  a  heretic  in  July,  1415.  His  followers,  said  to 
have  comprised  the  great  majority  of  the  population  of  tho 
Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  did  not  allow  the  movement  to  die  with 
its  leader.  During  a  demonstration  of  Husites  in  Prague,  Umr 
years  later,  stones  were  thrown  from  the  windows  of  the  To«ti 
HaU,  with  the  result  that  the  paraders  rushed  the  hall,  threw 
the  magistrates  out  of  the  windows,  and  started  the  long  and 
bloody  series  of  so-called  Husite  wars.  Bohemia,  or  Czechy, 
as  the  inhabitants  called  it,  became  thoroughly  Roman  Catholic 
again  under  the  Hapsburgs. 

The  Hapsburg  claim  to  the  territory,  which  has  played  so  large 
a  part  in  recent  history,  had  a  woman  at  the  bottom  of  it,  it 
appears.  Ferdinand  I.,  afterwards  Emperor  of  Austria,  married 
a  daughter  of  the  ruling  line  of  Bohemia,  and  on  that  basis  urged 
his  selection  as  the  Bohemian  King.  The  Bohemian  Diet,  at  a 
special  election  on  October  23,  1526,  accepted  his  alaim  as 
valid.  "Soon  after  the  Hapsburgs'  accession  to  the  throne," 
to  quote  again  from  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book,"  "they 
began  to  violate  Bohemia's  religious  and  national  liberties,  and 
this  action  eventually  led  to  the  Czech  Revolution  of  1618  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War."  The  revolution  was 
completely  crusht  in  1620.  Bohemia's  struggle  to  reclaim  its 
ancient  rights  as  an  independent  nation,  never  wholly  subdued, 
has  been  especially  strong  since  1848.  The  present  national 
feeling  is  traced  back  by  one  authority  to  the  literary  revival  of 
the  Czech  language,  a  movement  which  started  shortly  after  the 
French  Revolution. 

The  Slovaks,  during  most  of  the  period  of  the  oppression  of  the 
Bohemians  liy  the  Austrians,  were  very  much  under  the  domina- 
tion of  the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  who  conquered  their  country 
in  907,  displaced  or  assimilated  the  southern  Slovaks,  and  have 
practically  ever  since  been  lords  of  a:U  the  rest.  "The  Magyars 
have  always  treated  the  Slovaks  as  an  inferior  race,"  says  a  writer 
in  the  last  edition  of  "The  Encyclopedia  Britamiica."  "Tho 
result  is  a  large  emigration  to  America.  .  .  .  The  Slovaks  are  a 
peaceful,  rather  slow,  race  of  peasants  (their  aristocracy  is  Mag- 
yarized),  living  almost  exclusively  upon  the  land,  which  they  till 
after  the  most  primiiivs  methods.  When  this  does  not  yield 
sufficient,  they  wandsr  as  laborers,  and  especially  as  tinkers,  all 
ov3r  Austria,  Hungary,  and  even  into  South  Russia.  They  are 
fond  of  music,  and  their  songs  have  been  collected."  It  is  this 
peasant  territory  which  affords  agricultural  resources  more  than 
sufficient  to  support  the  new  Republic.  Bohemia,  Mora\'ia  and 
Silesia  complement  these  agricultural  resources  with  industrial 
developments,  soon  to  be  increased  by  certain  rights  which  the 
Peace  Treaty  gives  to  Czecho-Slovakia  in  the  German  ports  of 
Hamburg  and  Stettin. 

On  November  14,  1918,  the  National  Assembly  met  in  Prague 
and  formerly  declared  the  Czechc-Slovak  state  to  be  a  Republic, 
with  Prof.  T.  G.  Masaryk  as  its  first  President.  Czecho-Slovakia, 
according  to  figures  supplied  by  the  New  York  Consulate,  has 
the  distinction  of  being  less  burdened  by  debt  than  any  other 
nation  in  Europe.  By  contrast  with  her  immediate  neighbors, 
Austria  and  Hungary,  her  condition  is  especially  enviable. 

At  the  1920  elections,  the  Socialists,  both  in  the  Senate  and  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  gained  a  substantial  plurality,  their 
.  representation  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  being  recorded  at  141 
as  against  137  for  tho  other  parties,  and  in  the  Senate  at  68  as 
against  75  for  tho  rest.  Tho  Socialistic  program,  which  was  ex- 
jiected  to  follow,  has  not  developed  to  any  great  extent,  however, 
and  the  tendency  is,  in  the  words  of  the  Nebra.ska  Jniiriial: 

"Not  toward  the  Cojnmuiiism  of  Soviet  Russia,  but  a  nalion- 
alization  of  industries  and  i)ublie  utililies  by  political  mclliods 
and  iiiiilcr  |)(>litical  control,  after  the  manner  of  orthoclox 
Socialism." 


Ifi 


17 


The  New  Kingdom  of  Jugo-Slavia 


A 


PRODUCT  OF  INTELLECTUAL  FORCES"  is 
the  descriptive  phrase  applied  by  one  of  the  most 
competent  of  British  publicists  to  the  newly  formed 
state  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes;  and,  therefore,  he  says, 
it  "offers  peculiar  difficulties  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  imagination." 
The  binding  element  of  the  new  amalgamation  is  called  "the 
sentiment  of  a  racial  unity  transcending  political  and  religious 
di^^sions."  This  conception  of  Jugo-Slavia  is  summed  up  in  the 
reply  of  a  deputation  of  Serbs  to  the  question,  "What  do  you  un- 
derstand by  a  nation?"  The  question  was  put  in  1848,  when  the 
Serbs  were  petitioning  for  recognition  of  their  national  language 
in  the  Magyar  state,  and  thej-  replied:  "A  nation  is  a  race  which 
possesses  its  own  language,  customs,  culture,  and  enough  self- 
consciousness  to  preserve  them."  According  to  this  ^^ew,  a  single 
nation  could  exist  divided  among  several  political  rulers,  and  in 
this  sense,  we  are  told,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Jugo-Slavs  has 
existed  for  many  years.  Political  organization  came  in  those 
dark  daj-s  of  1917,  when  the  present  Kingdom's  territory  was 
altogether  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and  the  government  had 
fled,  with  the  remnants  of  the  army,  to  the  Greek  island  of 
Corfu.  There  on  July  20,  1917,  the  so-called  "Declaration  of 
Corfu"  was  signed  by  "the  President  of  the  Council,  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  Kingdom  of  Serbia,  Nikola  Pashitch, 
and  the  President  of  the  Jugo-Slav  Committee,  Dr.  Anton 
Trumbic."  This  declaration,  practically  all  of  whose  terms  have 
since  been  put  iuto  effect,  runs,  in  its  most  essential  parts,  as 
follows; 

1.  The  state  of  the  Serbs.  Croats  and  Slovenes,  who  are  also 
known  by  the  name  of  Southern  Slavs  or  Jugo-Slavs,  will  be  a 
free  and  independent  Kingdom,  'svith  an  indivisible  territory 
and  unity  of  power.  This  state  will  be  a  constitutional,  demo- 
cratic and  parliamentary  monarchy,  with  the  Karageorgevitch 
dynasty,  which  has  always  shared  the  ideals  and  feelings  of  the 
nation  in  placing  above  everything  else  the  national  liberty  and 
will,  at  its  head. 

2.  The  name  of  this  state  will  be  the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs, 
Croats  and  Slovenes,  and  the  title  of  the  sovereign  will  be 
King  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes.  .  .  . 

9.  The  territory  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes  will  com- 
prise all  the  territory  where  our  nation  lives  in  compact  masses 
and  without  discontinuity,  and  where  it  could  not  be  mutilated 
without  injuring  the  vital  interests  of  the  community. 

10.  The  Adriatic  Sea,  in  the  interests  of  liberty  and  equal 
rights  of  all  nations,  is  to  bo  free  and  open  to  all  and  each. 

11.  All  citizens  throughout  the  territory  of  the  Kingdom  are 
equal  and  enjoy  the  same  rights  in  regard  to  the  state  and  the  law. 

The  present  Kingdom,  whose  largest  recent  difficulty  van- 
ished with  the  suppression  of  d'Annunzio  and  the  creation  of  the 
"Free  State  of  Fiume,"  is  credited,  by  the  current  issue  of  "The 
Statesman's  Year-Book"  with  a  total  area  of  101,246  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  14,318,89.3.  Basically,  there  is  little 
difference  between  the  Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes  making  up 
the  population.  The  sole  difference  between  the  Serbs  and 
Croats,  writes  Vladislav  R.  Savic,  former  head  of  the  Serbian 
Foreign  Oflico's  Press  Bureau,  in  a  recent  volume  entitled 
"Southeastern  Europe"  (Revell),  was,  as  recently  as  medieval 
times,  one  of  religion.  "Western  tribes  fell  under  the  influonco 
of  Rome  and  became  Roman  Catholics;  the  eastern  tribes  came 
under  the  influence  of  Byzantium  and  embraced  Greek  Ortho- 
doxy." Religious  antagonism,  however,  "appears  on  the  whole 
to  have  been  conspicuous  by  its  absence,"  according  to  a  hand- 
book, "The  Jugo-Slav  Movement,"  prepared  by  the  British 
Foreign  Office  (London,  1920).  "There  is  a  Jugo-Slav  proverb, 
'A  brother  is  dear,  whatever  his  faith';  and,  in  fact,  the  tie  of 
blood  and  language  seems  to  have  counted  for  more  than  religious 
differences."  In  spite  of  the  political  barriers  which  have  im- 
peded mtercourse,  their  language,  says  this  authority,  is  at  the 
present  day  unifonn  to  such  a  degree  that  its  extreme  varieties. 


as  spoken  by  the  Croats  of  the  Save  Valley  and  by  the  Herze- 
govinian  Serbs  of  the  Narenta,  differ  less  than  do  the  dialects 
spoken  in  different  counties  in  England. 

The  Slovenes,  tho  belonging  to  the  same  great  South-Slav 
family,  received  a  special  impress  from  their  long  domination 
by  the  Austrian  Duchies  and  the  Hapsburg  dynasty.  Their 
speech,  says  the  British  handbook  quoted  above,  is  a  distinct 
variety,  but  inteUigible  to  their  Serbo-Croatian  neighbors.  For 
some  time,  we  are  told,  an  educational  literary  movement  has 
been  at  work  among  them,  tending  toward  linguistic  assimila- 
tion with  the  Serbo-Croats.  "From  close  contact  with  German 
and  Italian  elements  in  the  towns,"  this  authority  continues, 
"the  Slovenes  have  been  able  to  obtain  a  relatively  high  educa^ 
tiorial  standard.  They  alone  among  the  Jugo-Slavs  were  affected 
by  the  Reformation:  and,  tho  the  movement  was  finally  stamped 
out  by  the  Counter-Reformation,  it  maj'  be  said  that  something 
of  its  spirit  siu^vives  in  the  temper  of  the  Slovene  people." 

Napoleon  may  be  considered  one  of  the  founders  of  the  present 
Kingdom,  for  the  literary  and  linguistic  movement  which  devel- 
oped in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  name  of  Vuk  Karadzic,  was  greatly  stimulated 
bjf  the  French  conqueror's  creation,  in  1809,  of  the  lUj-rian 
Pro\dnces.  The  British  Foreign  Office  historian  presents  this 
resume  of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  nation: 

"The  new  provinces,  which  included  the  greater  part  of  the 
Slovene  lands,  the  Croatian  littoral,  and  Dalmatia,  were  designed 
to  be  a  French  outpost  on  the  high  road  to  the  East  and  a 
fortress  on  the  flank  of  Austria,;  hence  Napoleon  deliberately 
aimed  at  uniting  in  them  considerable  Slav  populations  under 
a  government  sympathetic  to  their  national  spirit.  The  aboli- 
tion of  the  frontiers  which  had  hitherto  di\aded  them  and  the 
material  and  intellectual  progress  which  resulted  from  the  able 
and  enhghtened  government  of  the  French  made  on  the  subjects 
of  the  new  state  an  impression  which  was  never  effaced.  'I11\t- 
ism'  became  the  watchword  of  the  next  generation  of  political 
thinkers;  but  in  their  definition  of  Ill>Tia  they  included,  besides 
Napoleon's  provinces,  all  lands  inhabited  by  Jugo-Slavs,  to 
whose  ultimate  union  in  some  yet  undefined  form  they  now  began 
to  aspire.  The  revolt  of  Serbia  and  her  emancipation  from 
Turkish  rule,  after  a  heroic  struggle,  promoted  this  ideal  at  a 
time  when  political  and  religious  considerations  alone  wouid  have 
favored  the  narrower  Napoleonic  conception. 

"The  labors  of  Vuk  Karadzic,  the  founder  of  modern  Jugo- 
Slav  culture,  gave  a  solid  basis  to  the  ideas  of  the  lUjTists. 
One  great  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  IlljTist  ideas  was  the  fact 
that,  while  one  vernacular  was  spoken  by  the  whole  race,  there 
was  no  standard  literary  language.  Vuk,  strongly  interested 
from  the  first  in  the  speech  and  traditions  of  his  people,  had 
already  begun  to  write  in  the  vernacular.  His  great  dictionary, 
whose  second  edition  (1852)  satisfied  the  most  exacting 
standards  of  western  scholarship,  fixt  the  forms  of  the  htorary 
language  at  the  time,  and  remains  a  linguistic  authority  of  the 
first  importance. 

"In  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  especially 
after  tho  union  of  Croatia-Slavonia  with  Hungary,  the  Jugo- 
slav idea  was  most  actively  promoted  in  Croatia,  where  its  most 
notable  champion  was  Bishop  Strossmayer  (1815-190.^)." 

Montenegro,  included  in  the  new  state  in  spite  of  the  ob- 
jections on  the  part  of  its  former  rulers,  and  of  many  of  its 
citizens,  inspired  a  resolution  of  protest  signed  by  some  fifty 
prominent  members  of  the  British  Parliament,  including 
Viscounts  Bryoo  and  Curzon.  This  protest,  as  reported  by 
Current  History  (New  York),  is  oxprest  in  the  following 
terms: 

"Having  regard  to  the  most  gallant  services  rendered  by 
Montenegro,  the  snuiUost  of  our  Allies,  and  to  the  heavy  cost 
she  lias  sustained,  her  people  have  tho  clear  right  to  determine 
their  future  form  of  governnu^nt;  it  is,  therefore,  noces.sary  that 
a  Parliament  should  be  elected  under  the  Montenegrin  (Con- 
stitution to  decide  this  question,  free  voting  being  secured  by 
the  withdrawal  of  all  llu^  Serbian  troops  and  ollicials  at  present 
occupying  the  country." 


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19 


The  New  Bulgaria 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  BULGARIA  comes  out  of  the 
recent  European  melee  somewhat  less  disfigured  than 
the  other  members  of  the  Germanic  alliance.  It  has  lost 
a  small  amount  of  territory  on  the  south,  including  its  jEgean 
Sea  littoral,  but  the  Council  of  the  Peace  Conference,  as  an 
editorial  WTiter  m  Current  History  (New  York)  observes,  "is 
expected  to  assign  a  port  on  the  ^Egean."  That  southwestern 
vermiform  appendix  containing  the  fortress  of  Strumitsa  (marked 
"2"  on  the  map),  which  was  a  veritable  thorn  in  the  side  of 
the  Allies  during  the  war,  has  also  been  lopped  off.  "Un- 
der the  guise  of  frontier  rectification,  a  large  strip  of  territory 
containing  no  Serbians  and  1)2,000  Bulgarians,  who  had  formed 
an  integral  part  of  Bulgaria,  has  been  annexed  to  Serbia,"  com- 
plains a  Bulgarian  apologist.  Theodore  Vladimiroff,  who  pre- 
sents, in  Current  History,  a  bitter  protest  against  the  injustices 
of  the  Peace  Treaty.  Dobrudja,  with  a  Roumanian  popula- 
tion of  less  than  7,000  out  of  a  total  of  275,000,  has  been  left 
in  the  possession  of  Roumania,  further  objects  Mr.  Vladi- 
miroff. According  to  the  current  issue  of  "The  Statesman's 
Year-Book,"  however,  nearly  all  of  the  remaining  268,000  are 
Turks  and  Tartars.  The  indemnity  laid  upon  the  country, 
about  .$450,000,000  at  the  normal  rate  of  exchange,  is  responsible 
for  much  bitterness  in  Bulgarian  governmental  circles,  but  per- 
haps the  worst  blow  is  the  fact  that,  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles, 
Bulgaria's  old  rival,  Roumania,  is  practically  tripled  in  area  and 
population.  In  the  days  before  the  war  the  countries  were  of 
approximately  equal  strength. 

The  population  of  Bulgaria  in  1918,  according  to  a  compila- 
tion made  for  the  Matthews-Northrup  Map  Works  was  4,467,- 
000,  and  the  total  area  43,305  square  miles.  "The  Statesman's 
Year-Book"  presents  figures,  admittedly  estimates,  for  1920, 
which  give  the  area  as  42,000  square  miles,  with  a  total  popula- 
tion of  5,000,000.  Mr.  Vladimiroff.  mentioned  above,  credits 
the  present  kingdom  with  "about  35,000  square  miles  and  4,- 
500,000  people."  It  is  a  farming  population  to  a  great  extent, 
with  the  unusually  high  proportion  of  82  per  cent,  of  the  people 
owning  their  own  land  and  homesteads.  About  a  year  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  armistice,  the  Farmer  party  came  into 
power  and  the  present  head  of  the  government.  Premier  Stam- 
bolisky,  "a  farmer  himself,"  is  said  to  be  more  interested  in 
agrarian  reforms  than  international  politics.  The  population 
includes  as  diversified  a  mixture  of  nationalities  as  is  found  in 
any  of  the  heterogeneous  Balkan  States.  In  1910,  according 
to  "The  Stateman's  Yfear-Book,"  there  were  3,203,810  Bul- 
garians, 488,010  Turks,  98,004  Gipsies,  75,773  Roumanians, 
63,487  Greeks,  37,663  Jews,  3,863  Germans,  3,275  Russians, 
and  61,690  of  other  nationalities.  Figures  representing  the 
proportion  of  nationalities  in  the  various  disputed  provinces 
vary  according  to  the  national  aspirations  of  the  government 
which  presents  them. 

The  present  boundaries  of  Bulgaria  are  practically  the  same  as 
those  the  kingdom  had  obtained  lialf  a  century  ago,  as  is  shown 
by  an  Oxford  University  publication,  "An  Historical  Atlas  of 
Modern  Europe,"  which  follows  the  recent  development  of 
Eur.opean  nations.  In  1885,  notes  a  writer  in  this  work,  eastern 
Roumelia  revolted  and  united  with  the  Bulgaria  of  I87S,  a  union 
reluctantly  recognized  by  Turkey,  whose  suzerainty  over  the 
state  continued.  In  1908,  following  the  annexation  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  by  Austria,  Bulgaria  renounced  Turkish  con- 
trol, changed  the  title  of  her  ruler  from  "Prince"  to  "Czar,"  and 
assisted  in  the  formation  of  the  Balkan  League,  including 
Mont(!negro,  Serbia,  Bulgaria  and  Greece.  The  League  prompt- 
ly challenged  "a  weakened  Turkey,  just  freed  from  the  war  with 
Italy  and  the  loss  of  the  Tripolitana"  (October  18,  1912).  The 
complete  defeat  of  the  Porte  was  followed  by  a  failure  of  the 
victors  to  agree  over  the  divisions  of  the  spoil,  which  led  up  to 


the  second  Balkan  war.  Serbia,  Montenegro  and  Greece  took 
the  field  against  Bulgaria,  whose  defeat,  made  decisive  by  the 
intervention  of  Roumania,  left  national  feuds  that  worked  them- 
selves out  in  the  recent  war.  The  Dobrudja,  which  Roumania 
forced  from  beaten  Bulgaria  in  1913,  was  one  of  the  prizes  for 
which  Bulgaria  took  up  arms  in  1915,  and  to  whose  loss  the 
recent  statements  of  her  Premier  prove  her  still  unreconciled. 

While  waiting  for  her  port  on  the  ^gean,  Bulgaria  has  been 
obliged  to  use  her  Danubian  ports.  Thus  handicapped,  observes 
an  editorial  writer  in  Current  History,  "she  is  said  to  have  per- 
formed wonders,  particularly  in  the  production  and  export  of 
cereals": 

"The  official  statistics  show  that  the  yield  of  cereals  in  1919 
for  the  whole  of  Bulgaria  was  2, .327, 614  tons,  of  which  1,800,000 
tons  were  required  for  consuniijtion  and  for  sowing,  leaving 
727,614  tons  free  for  export.  Of  the  total  yield  wheat  pro\ided 
926,112  tons,  rye  164,860,  barley  228,809,  oats  107,226,  and  maize 
985,296.  Information  furnished  by  the  Director-General  of  the 
Bulgarian  statistics  and  by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  indicates 
an  increase  of  at  least  20  per  cent,  on  the  above  figures  for  the 
1920  yield." 

One  of  the  outstanding  measures  elaborated  for  the  recon 
struction  of  the  country  is  the  so-called  Labor  Conscription  Law, 
which  has  been  put  into  effect  in  combination  with  a  law  for 
"expropriating  the  surplus  land  of  individuals  who  can  not 
cultivate  it  themselves."  To  quote  from  Mr.  Vladimiroff's 
exposition  of  this  experiment  in  State  Socialism,  in  Current 
History: 

"The  law  provides  that  all  Bulgarian  citizens  of  both  sexes, 
who  have  completed,  the  men  twenty,  the  women  eighteen  years 
of  age,  are  subject  to  obligatory  labor.  Men  will  work  sixteen 
and  women  ten  months.  No  substitutes  are  allowed,  but  every- 
body who  is  not  physically  or  mentally  incapable  must  do  his  bit 
of  work.  For  religious  reasons,  which  prescribe  the  seclusion  of 
Mohammedan  women,  the  latter  are  exempt  from  this  oliliga- 
tory  labor.  The  conscripted  persons  will  be  put  to  work  upon 
tasks  for  which  they  are  fit,  and  part  of  their  time  of  service 
will  be  de\oted  to  mental  and  manual  training.  For  this  pur- 
pose, schools,  workshops,  etc.,  will  be  provided. 

"As  stated  in  the  preamble  of  the  law,  the  aim  of  this  obligatory 
labor  is: 

"1.  To  organize  and  utilize  the  social  forces  in  order  to 
increase  production  and  general  welfare; 

"2.  To  stimulate  in  all  citizens,  irrespective  of  their  social 
and  material  condition,  devotion  to  public  things  and  love  for 
physical  labor; 

"3.  To  elevate  the  people  morally  and  economically  by  cul- 
tivating among  the  citizens  the  sentiment  of  duty  to  themselves 
and  society,  and  by  teachmg  them  rational  methods  of  work 
in  all  the  domains  of  national  economy. 

"This  labor  conscription,  as  well  as  the  project  of  expropriating 
the  surplus  land  of  individuals  who  can  not  cultivate  it  them- 
selves, is  dictated  not  only  by  the  necessity  of  increasing  pro- 
duction, but  also  by  that  of  pi'oviding  (he  many  thousands  of 
refugees  with  homesteads  and  land.  Owing  to  the  cession  of 
eastern  and  western  Thrace  to  Greece,  of  Macedonia  (o  Serbia 
aiul  Greece,  and  of  Dobrudja  to  Roumania,  thousands  of  Bul- 
garians have  been  forced  to  abandon  their  homes  and  seek  refuge 
in  Bulgaria.  The  number  of  (licse  unforlunafe  exiles  may  be 
safely  ostinuited  at  b('tween  2.")(),000  and  300,000.  The  Bul- 
garian Government  has  done  and  is  doing  what  it  can  for  their 
scUlemenl,  and  the  above-mentioned  measures  aim  (o  effect 
this  setllement  wilh  as  little  dislurbance  of  the  economic  life 
of  the  country  as  possible." 

In  spile  of  these  economic  innovations,  which  have  been 
o|)i)osed  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  nation  as  "pure  Bol- 
shevism," Bulgaria  .shares  with  Turkey  the  distinction  of  being 
one  of  the  two  nations  of  the  defeated  alliance  which  retain  their 
monarchical  system  practically  unaltered  by  the  war.  The  pro- 
Gorman  Czar,  Ferdiiumd,  resigned  when  it  became  apparent  that 
lie  had  l)acked  the  losing  faction,  and  his  s(m,  Boris,  the  present 
Czar,  is  said  to  be  somewhat  more  democratically  inclined. 


20 


21 


The  New  Kingdom  of  Greece 


A  GREECE  GREATER  than  any  the  world  has  known 
since  the  long-past  days  of  its  great  glory,  shortly 
Iiefore  the  birth  of  Christ,  emerges  from  the  war  of 
191-1.  The  kingdom's  recent  increase,  in  territory  and  prestige, 
is  somewhat  contingent,  however,  upon  the  future  attitude 
of  ex-King  Constautine,  just  returned  to  his  country  from  exile. 
The  national  election,  which  repudiated  Venizelos  and  favored 
the  return  of  the  ex-King,  came  as  a  great  shock  to  most  of  the 
AUied  friends  of  the  kingdom,  who  look  upon  Constantine  and 
his  supporters  as  pro-German,  and  as  he  returns  to  power,  pro- 
testing his  desire  to  show  himself  a  good  friend  to  the  Allies, 
the  Allies,  and  especially  England,  raise  a  chorus  of  regret  over 
the  departure  of  the  ex-Premier,  Eleutherios  Venizelos.  "There 
was  once  a  great  sculptor,"  says  The  Outlook  (London),  "whom 
the  whim  of  a  tjTant  condemned  to  model  a  statue  in  snow." 
The  comparison  continues,  with  several  side-lights  on  the  recent 
history  of  the  kingdom: 

"Something  of  that  tragic  contrast  between  the  skill  of  the 
artificer  and  the  rottenness  of  the  material  is  felt  when  we 
contemplate  the  life-work  of  Venizelos.  Twice  he  has  been 
rewarded  with  the  foulest  ingratitude  for  great  services  rendered. 
Eight  years  ago  he  raised  Greece  from  the  position  of  a  petty 
and  insecure  Power  to  that  of  a  considerable  kingdom.  As  his 
guerdon  he  was  first  thwarted  and  then  dismissed  by  his  king; 
his  policy  was  reversed,  his  adherents  were  persecuted  and 
murdered,  and  even  his  own  life  was  in  danger.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  war  a  turn  of  fortune  placed  him  again  in  power; 
and  his  skilful  diplomacj',  taking  the  fullest  advantage  for  his 
country  of  the  confidence  he  personally  inspired  in  the  Allies, 
contrived  to  ^-in  for  Greece,  which  had  acted  against  us  during 
the  war,  accessions  of  territory  and  influence  which  would 
have  been  a  more  than  sufficient  payment  for  great  ser\'ices 
and  sacrifices.  Greece,  at  the  time  Venizelos  first  took  charge 
of  its  government,  was  almost  on  the  point  of  dissolution; 
he  has  given  it  all  the  potentialities,  and  some  of  the  actuality, 
of  a  Great  Power.  And  now  this  great  Minister  has  fallen 
as  the  result  of  a  popular  vote.  History,  rich  as  it  is  in  in- 
stances of  national  ingratitude,  hardly  affords  so  flagrant  an 
example." 

The  history  of  Greece,  however,  presents  several  such  ex- 
amples, as  most  high-school  students  know.  Miltiades,  the 
famous  \-ictor  at  Marathon,  was  banished  shortly  after  his 
great  achievement.  Themistocles,  who  saved  his  country  at 
Salamis  by  "wooden  walls,"  as  he  called  the  great  fleet  which 
he  forced  his  reluctant  countrymen  to  build,  was  not  only 
banished,  but  declared  a  traitor.  They  were  perhaps  the  two 
most  notable  leaders  of  Greece's  ancient  period  of  glory  and 
power,  and  their  fate  naturally  suggests  comparison  with  that  of 
Venizelos,  recently  repudiated  after  an  attempt  at  assassination 
which  was  almost  successful.  It  may  be  mentioned,  however, 
that  most  historians  agree  there  was  excellent  reason  for  Greek 
rescmtment  in  the  ease  of  both  of  her  two  great  ancient  leaders 
who  fell  upon  evil  times.  It  was  said  of  them,  as  it  has  been 
said  of  Venizelos,  that  they  were  great  men,  but  ambitious  and 
unscrupulous. 

According  to  the  terms  of  the  Near-Eastern  settlement  which 
forms  the  basis  of  the  accompanying  map,  the  postwar  Greece 
includes  a  considerable  amount  of  Thracian  territory  gained  at 
the  expense  of  Bulgaria  and  Turkey,  a  large  collection  of  islands 
formerly  Turkish  property,  practical  sovereignty  over  a  con- 
siderable district  of  Asia  Minor,  and  a  claim  to  a  section  of  the 
Epiriis.  This  claim  seems  in  a  fair  way  to  bo  allowed,  through 
arrangement  with  the  Italian  Government  and  Albania.  The 
present  population  of  the  kingdom,  allowing  for  all  increases,  is, 
according  to  the  editor  of  the  New  York  Atlantis,  a  Greek  <laiiy, 
approximately  7,fK)0,rX)().  The  fitatesmen's  Year-Hook,  basing  its 
computation  on  later  figures,  estimates  that  "Greater  Greece 
will   1)0   inhabited  by   6,000,000   Greeks   and   about  2,000,000 


non-Greek   people,  1,000,000  of  whom  live  in   SmjTna  and   its 
hinterland." 

Both  population  and  area  had  been  greatly  increased  just 
before  the  launching  of  the  Great  War  of  1914.  The  area  in 
1910,  as  presented  in  figures  collected  by  the  Matthews-Northrup 
Map  Works,  was  2.5,014  square  mUeS,  the  population  2,76.5,000. 
In  1913,  with  the  new  territories  gained  by  the  Balkan  wars, 
the  country  had  a  territorial  extent  of  41,9.33  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  4,821,300.  With  regard  to  racial  distribution, 
says  a  recent  handbook  entitled  "Greece,  with  the  Cyelades  and 
Northern  Sporades,"  issued  by  the  Historical  Section  of  the 
British  Foreign  Office,  there  were  only  250,000  Greeks  in  the 
1,140,000  population  taken  over  in  Macedonia.  The  other 
new  territories,  however,  show  a  substantial  preponderance  of 
Greek  nationals.  "In  the  case  of  the  Greeks,  even  more  than 
that  of  any  other  Balkan  nation,  it  is  impossible  to  understand 
modern  claims  and  inspirations  except  in  relation  to  ancient 
and  medieval  history,"  says  this  British  handbook,  and  thus 
invokes  the  nation's  splendid  past: 

"There  is  no  doubt  that  the  traditions  of  ancient  and  medieval 
glory  have  been  the  chief  inspiration  not  only  of  the  Greeks 
themselves,  but  also  of  the  foreign  Philhellenes  who  have  been 
willing  in  more  than  one  crisis  to  give  their  lives  for  Greece. 
Such  devotion  must  be  regarded  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the 
incalculable  debt  of  the  civilized  world  to  the  art  and  literature, 
the  thought  and  polities  of  ancient  Greece. 

During  the  period  of  their  highest  and  most  characteristic 
development,  from  the  sixth  to  the  fourth  centiu-y,  b.  c,  the 
Greek  people  occupied  not  only  the  present  kingdoms  of  Greece 
and  the  JSgean  Islands,  but  also  the  whole  western  coast  of  Asia 
Minor;  their  colonies  were  placed  on  aU  the  most  important 
sites  in  Sicily  and  South  Italy,  the  south  of  France,  in  the 
Khalkidike,  the  Dardanelles  and  Bosporus,  and  the  Black  Sea; 
while  in  Cyprus  and  the  north  of  Africa  they  held  their  own 
against  Phenieian  rivals 

"The  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  made  Greek  language 
and  ideas  the  common  heritage  of  the  ci^-ilized  world.  But 
under  his  successors,  and  also  under  the  Roman  Empire,  the 
political  independence  of  Greece  disappeared,  to  be  replaced  by 
a  general  respect  for  Greece,  and  above  all  for  Athens,  as  the 
origin  and  center  of  intellectual  activity  and  progress.  The 
Byzantine  Empire,  of  which  Greece  naturally  formed  a  part, 
showed  a  curious  blend  of  Oriental,  Greek,  and  Roman  in- 
fluences. Byzantium  itself  was  a  colony  of  the  Greek  city  of 
Megara;  its  change  of  name  to  Constantinople  has  never  been 
more  than  partially  accepted. 

"The  claim  sometimes  made  for  the  present  Greek  kingdom 
to  be  the  successor  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  depends  almost 
entirely  on  language  and  sentiment;  but  its  existence  as  a 
factor  in  modern  politics  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  now 
exiled  King  claims  the  title  of  Constantine  XII;  and  an  element 
in  his  popularity  was  the  traditional  prophecy  that  as  a  Con- 
stantine had  lost  Constantinople  for  the  Greeks,  another  Con- 
stantine should  win  it  back." 

King  Constantine's  war  with  the  Turks,  conducted  through 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  1921,  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  a  Greek  lino  far  to  the  eastward  of  the  territory  allotted  to  the 
kingdom  by  the  Sevres  Treaty.  The  Greeks,  however,  failed 
in  their  attempt  to  take  Angora,  capital  of  the  "Young  Turks" 
party,  and  predominant  neutral  opinion  called  the  struggle 
a  draw.  As  for  the  future,  says  the  London  Daily  Telegraph: 
It  may  have  many  things  in  reserve,  and  we  need  not  suppose 
that  the  Greeks  have  definitely  abandoned  the  idea  of  one  day 
restoring  the  Byzantine  Empire  in  the  city  of  Constantine  the 
Cireat.  The  Hellenic  monarch  and  his  subjects  may  be  justly 
proud  of  having  faced  and  defeated  their  hereditary  enemies  in 
the  cradle  of  their  race,  and  driven  them  in  retreat  from  the 
Mediterranean  littoral  to  the  Anatolian  strongholds.  However, 
Constantinoph-  and  the  Straits  must  remain  under  international 
guarantee  and  guardianship,  and  cannot  bo  subject  to  the  for- 
tune of  war. 


22 


^^      bH      »<      t/j  kH 

e©@©  0 


23 


The  New  Italy 


ITALY  HAS  BEEN  RAISED  by  the  various  peace  treaties, 
as  has  her  ancient  rival  and  neighbor,  Greece,  nearer  to 
the  power  and  prestige  of  classical  times  than  she  has  been 
since  the  early  years  of  the  Christian  era.  The  poet-Captain 
d'Annunzio,  before  he  was  ousted  from  Fiume,  dreamed  for  the 
nation  a  complete  return  to  the  old  glory,  "when  to  be  a  simple 
Roman  was  greater  than  to  be  a  northern  king,"  but  the  major- 
ity of  Italian  statesmen  agree  with  the  world  at  large  that 
Italy's  recent  expansion  has  been  as  considerable  as  she  could 
reasonabl.v  have  expected.  As  for  d'Annunzio's  attempt  to 
hold  Fiume  against  both  the  wills  of  his  own  government  and 
of  the  other  Allies,  "it  actually  had  some  effect  in  revising  the 
terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty,"  says  the  San  Francisco  Bulletin, 
speaking  for  a  consideralile  portion  of  the  press  who  find  the 
romantic  captain's  adventure  not  altogether  a  farce.  "His 
apparent  defeat  may  well  be  construed  as  a  ^dctory." 

The  population  of  the  kingdom,  according  to  figures  collected 
by  the  ISIatthews-Xorthrup  Map  Works,  has  been  increased 
by  about  1,500,000  through  the  addition  of  the  recently  acquired 
territories  shown  on  the  accompanj-ing  map.  "The  Statesman's 
Year-Book"  for  1921  places  the  1920  population  of  the  old 
Kingdom  of  Italy  at  36,099,657,  an  increase  from  34,671,377 
in  1911,  so  that  the  recent  additions  bring  the  present  total  up 
to  more  than  37,500,000.  Of  the  total  increase  brought  by 
recent  annexations,  according  to  a  handbook  prepared  under  the 
direction  of  the  Historical  Section  of  the  British  Foreign  Office, 
"Trentino  and  Alto  Adige"  (London),  the  section  numbered 
"1"  on  the  accompanying  map  contributed  the  larger  part. 
In  1910,  says  the  British  authority,  the  total  population  of  this 
district  was  616,856.  "The  population  of  Italy  is  in  general 
perfectly  homogeneous,"  notes  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book," 
but  the  British  handbook  referred  to  asserts  that  this  is  not  the 
case  in  the  territory  known  as  Trentino  and  Alto  Adige.  Thus, 
altho  the  Trentino  "may  be  regarded  as  wholly  Italian  or  at 
least  Romance,  the  Alto  Adige  is,  with  certain  exceptions,  almost 
solidly  German.  The  Austrian  census  of  1910  shows  the  popu- 
lation of  this  region  as  consisting  of  215,796  Germans,  22,500 
Italians  and  Ladins,  and  1,643  persons  of  other  nationality. 
This  gives  a  proportion  of  Italians  of  under  8  per  cent.,  or,  if  we 
except  the  Enneberg  district,  where  Ladins  are  in  an  over- 
whelming majority,  only  5  per  cent.  This  is  certainly  an  under- 
estimate, tho  the  Italian  estimate  of  25  per  cent,  is  also  an 
exaggeration."  The  Ladins  mentioned  above  as  sharing  this 
district  with  the  Italians  are  a  related  race  of  mixed  Latin 
descent  "speaking  the  Romansch  dialect,"  says  the  International 
Encyclopedia. 

Tho  annexation  of  this  northern  territory  by  Italy  is  defended 
on  the  grcnind  that  Austrian  rule  brought  economic  ruin  to  th« 
country.  The  situation  under  Austria,  and  the  possibilities  in 
case  customs  barriers  and  other  difficulties  are  removed,  are 
treated  in  those  paragraphs  in  "Trentino  and  Alto  Adige": 

"The  Austrian  Government  undoubttsdiy  decided  to  regard 
the  Trentino  as  a  military  zone,  and  has  displayed  indift'crcncc 
and  even  active  hostility  to  its  development.  Tho  aulhorilit.s 
have  consistently  opposi^d  the  development  of  communications 
■with  Italy  and  eonsint(,'d  with  tho  greatest  reluctance  to  the 
maintenance  of  those  that  exist.  They  have  stopt  (he  convenient 
and  long-cstal)lished  practise  of  sending  ilalian  cattle  to  the 
Trentino  pastures  during  the  summer  months;  they  have  re- 
fused to  consent  to  the  supply  of  electric  power  to  Italy;  and 
in  cases  too  numerous  to  specify  they  have  placed  ol)s(acles 
in  the  way  of  the  d('Velopment  of  trade.  There  can  l)e  little 
doubt  that  if  the  Trentino  were  freed  from  Austrian  control  its 
prosperity  would  greatly  increase.  The  economic  future  of  tho 
region  must  principally  depend  on  tho  utilization  of  its  water- 
power." 

This  "wliite  coal,"  as  several  Kalian  economists  speak  of 
their  water-power,  i^counted  upon  as  the  one  groat  factor  certain 


to  raise  Italy  to  high  rank  among  the  manufacturing  nations. 
The  other  annexed  territories,  the  Gorizia  Carso,  Istria,  and 
Dalmatia,  offer  two  other  "wide  spheres  of  activity — the  sea 
and  stone-quarrying,"  a  writer  points  out  in  The  Anglo-Italian 
Renew  (London).  The  Romans  worked  the  quarries  of  Xa- 
bresina,  Pola,  and  the  Island  of  Brazza,  near  Spalato.  As  for  the 
maritime  advantages  gained  with  the  new  littoral.  Current 
History  (New  York)  recalls  that  "before  the  war  Trieste  was 
the  great  trading  center  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  main  artery 
through  which  the  markets  of  Vienna,  Budapest,  and  Prague 
received  the  bulk  of  their  imports.  In  1913  more  than  14,000 
vessels  and  nearly  5,000,000  tons  of  freight  used  its  harbor." 
It  was  after  mention  of  these  economic  advantages  that  the 
government  leader  in  the  Italian  Chamber  recently  declared: 
"Signor  Giolitti  has  the  merit  of  concluding  ...  a  peace  .  .  . 
which  has  obtained  for  Italy  all  that  belongs  to  it." 

On  the  historical  grounds  so  eloquently  invoked  by  d'An- 
nunzio, however,  the  present  kingdom  might  lay  claim  to  most 
of  Europe,  including  England  and  Wales.  "In  ancient  times," 
to  translate  from  "L'ltalia,"  by  Ernest  Hatch  Wilkins  and 
Antonio  Mermarioni,  a  volume  recentlj^  issued  by  the  University 
of  Chicago  Press,  "the  city  of  Rome,  center  of  an  extraordinary 
force  bent  on  conquest  and  organization,  extended  its  dominion 
first  over  the  neighboring  populations,  then  throughout  the 
peninsula,  and  later  through  almost  all  the  rest  of  the  known 
world."  Roman  history,  with  its  record  of  Roman  martial 
grandeur,  of  Roman  laws  which  are  now  the  basis  of  all  the  legal 
systems  governing  the  civilized  world,  of  Roman  art,  literature, 
and  architecture,  is  as  much  the  heritage  of  every  European  and 
American  schoolboy  as  is  the  history  of  his  own  land.  The 
waves  of  "barbarians"  from  the  north  and  east,  which  suc- 
cessively overran  the  country,  were  slowly  absorbed  by  the  native 
population,  still  notable  for  many  of  the  old  Latin  characteris- 
tics. "Most  genealogists  trace  the  origin  of  the  reigning  house 
to  a  German  Count  Berthold,"  notes  "The  Statesman's  Year- 
Book,"  "who,  in  the  eleventh  century,  established  himself  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Alps  between  Mont  Blanc  and  Lake  Leman." 

The  slow  amalgamation  of  the  various  semi-independent 
principalities,  kingdoms,  duchies,  and  Papal  States  since  that 
time  reached  a  climax  in  February,  1861,  when  the  first  Italian 
Parliament  assembled  and  declared  (on  March  17),  Vittorio 
Emmanuel  King  of  Italy.  The  remaining  part  of  the  Papal 
States,  which  had  been  occupied  by  an  Italian  army  in 
1870,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  garrison,  was  annexed 
to  the  kingdom  by  a  plebiscite  on  October  7  of  the  same  year. 
Since  this  loss  of  his  temporal  power  the  Pope  has  remained  a 
self-sentenced  prisoner  in  tho  Vatican. 

In  all  the  long  history  of  Italy,  which  has  been  for  the  most 
part  a  history  of  wars  of  conquest  or  defense,  Ouglielmo  Ferrero, 
the  Italian  historian,  finds  few  episodes  more  dramatic  than  the 
breaking  of  the  Italian  lines  around  Caporetto  late  in  1917.  To 
translate  from  his  account  in  La  Revue  dc  Gcnhve  (Geneva): 

"Caporetto  remains  a  huge  legtmd.  Tho  treason  of  tho 
soldiers,  of  which  so  much  has  been  said,  never  existed.  The 
disintegration  of  the  army  by  defeatist  jiropaganda  is  a  fantastic 
invention.  ...  It  was  a  battle  lost  by  certain  errors  of  geuci-nl- 
ship  which  might  have  been  avoid(^d,  but  which  were  niithir 
more  grave  nor  more  unusual  than  many  other  errors  committed 
by  many  other  generals  in  the  course  of  the  World  War." 

Nevertheless,  "Caporetto  saved  us,"  ho  says  and  continues: 
"All  history,  since  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons,  i)rovis  that  it  is 
V(yry  easy  for  an  army  to  enter  tho  Valley  of  tlu;  ]'o,  l)ut  very 
dinicult  to  K(!t  out  of  it.  The  Valley  of  the  Po  is  a  sort  of  mous(-- 
traj);  unfortunate  is  the  army  which  I'niers  there,  guided  liy 
victory,  and  finds  a  serious  resistance.  Tl  ends  by  being  thrown 
against  the  mountains  and  cnisht.  .  .  .  Tlie  foresight  of  the 
historian  was  verified  to  the  letter:  The  Austrian  army  whicli 
entered   Ilal\'  in   1917  never  succeeded  in  getting  out." 


24 


ITALY 

Territory  before  the  war 

Additions  according  to 
peace  terms    .    .    .    , 


DcdBions  by  Peace  Treaty 

(V)  Trentino  to  Italy  from  Austria. 

(D  Gorizia    and    Istria,    to     Italy 
from  Austria. 

(3)  Fiume,  independent  state. 

0  Parlor  the  Islands  off  Dalmatia 

to    Italy  from    Austria-Hun- 
gary. 

(5)  Zara,  to  Italy  from  Austria. 

(fi)  Saseno  Island,  to  Italy. 

(7)  Rhodes,    occupied     by    Italy, 
plebiscite  after  15  years. 


^,  OO^VRIGHT     1921,    BY  FUNK   &   WA0NALL8  COMPANy ,    NEW  YORK 
THE  MATTMEwa-HORTMRUP  WORKB,  euFfALO,   M.  Y. 


Longitude     East  from  Greenwich     16" 


25 


The  New  and  Greater  Roumania 


ROUIMANIA  WENT  INTO  THE  WAR  shaped  very 
much  like  an  old  boot,  with  a  remarkably  thin  ankle  sec- 
tion, and  emerged  a  rounded-out,  compact,  roughly  circu- 
lar nation  of  nearly  three  times  its  former  size.  Its  area,  in  1914, 
was  53,489  square  mUes.  With  the  recent  additions  of  Transyl- 
vania, Buko\'ina  and  Bessarabia,  it  now  includes,  according  to 
estimates  made  by  the  map  experts  of  the  Matthews-Northrup 
Works,  122,282  square  miles  of  territory.  Its  population  has 
been  increased,  by  the  same  recent  treaties  which  enlarged  its 
geographical  domain,  from  7,771,341  to  17,393,149.  Roumania 
is  one  country,  at  least,  which  seems  to  be  pretty  well  satisfied 
by  the  outcome  of  the  war.  "We  have  achieved  what  was  our 
dream  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,"  said  the  Roumanian 
Foreign  Minister,  Take  Joneseu,  in  a  recent  speech  in  London, 
as  quoted  by  the  London  Telegraph.  "We  are  now  in  a  position 
to  show  whether  we  are  worthy  or  not  of  the  sacrifices  that  have 
been  made  for  us." 

The  present  kingdom  of  Roumania,  as  may  be  seen  by  compar- 
ing the  latest  map,  printed  on  the  opposite  page,  with  the  his- 
torical records  cited  by  a  writer  in  the  current  edition  of  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  includes  practically  the  same  territory 
which  once  constituted  the  old  Roman  pro-\  ince  of  Daeia,  con- 
quered by  Trajan's  legions  early  in  the  Christian  era.  The  land 
was  thoroughly  Romanized  in  the  following  centuries,  and  the 
Roumanian  of  to-day  is  considered  by  many  authorities  to  be  a 
direct  descendant  of  the  old  Roman  conquerors  and  colonizers. 
The  language  of  the  peasants,  notes  a  philological  expert  writing 
in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  "represents  the  original  rustic 
Latin  of  the  Roman  provincials  in  Moesia  and  Dacia,  as  modi- 
fied by  centuries  of  alien  rule.  .  .  .  Some  words  retain  unaltered 
the  forms  under  which  they  were  used  by  VergO  and  Cicero." 

The  state  of  Roumania  as  it  existed  prior  to  the  war,  Prof. 
Basil  Stoica,  a  Commissioner  of  the  Roumanian  Government  in 
New  York,  recalled  in  a  recent  article  in  the  New  York  Tribune, 
was  formed  in  1859,  by  the  union  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia, 
which  had  both  existed  as  consolidated  states  since  the  early 
twelfth  centurj',  and  were  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
down  to  their  union  autonomous  principalities  under  Turkish 
suzerainty.  The  pressure  of  the  Magyars  on  the  west,  of  the 
Muscovites  on  the  northeast,  and  of  the  Turks  on  the  south,  prest 
the  kingdom  into  the  peculiar  shape  which  it  presented  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war.  Of  the  large  territories  which  it  has  an- 
nexed, Transylvania  is  generally  admitted  to  be  preponderantly 
Roumanian  in  nationality.  The  annexation  of  Bessarabia,  which 
formerly  belonged  to  Russia,  has  been  attacked  by  e.x-Premier 
Kerensky  and  others  as  a  plain  theft  of  Russian  territory.  Pro- 
fessor Stoica,  answering  this  contention  in  a  booklet  called 
"Bessarabia"  (George  H.  Doran  Company),  says  that  Bessara- 
bia was  ceded  to  Russia  by  the  Turks  in  1812,  when,  "save  for  tho 
southeastern  corner  of  tho  province,  the  population  was  every- 
where purely  Roumanian,"  and  only  tho  fringe  along  the  sea 
was  in  reality  a  Turkish  province.  The  two  Turkish  commission- 
ers were  afterward  beheaded  for  giving  up  this  territory,  which 
was  not  theirs  to  give,  says  Profes.sor  Stoica,  and  Russia  has  held 
it  by  force  ever  since.  Answering  the  objection  that  "  the  present 
population  of  Bessarabia  is  about  2,500,000  and  the  Moldavian 
part  of  it  constitutes  less  than  .50  per  cent.,"  the  Professor  writes 
in  a  letter  to  the  New  York  Tribune: 

"Indeed,  according  to  the  official  Russian  statistics  of  1897, 
the  Roumanians  form  48  per  cent,  of  the  Bossarabian  population; 
the  Russians  and  Ulcrainians  together,  19  per  ecwit.;  Jews,  11 
per  cent.;  Bulgarians,  5  per  cent.;  Germans,  3  per  cent.;  the 
remainder  being  small  groups  of  Moslem  colonists.  Even  accept,- 
ing  these  data  as  correct,  wliicli  they  are  not,  by  what  right 
would  19  per  ctmt.  Russians  and  Ulvrainians  (by  the  way,  two 
distinct  nationalities,  who  hate  one  anothiT  cordially)  overrule 
the  will  of  48  per  cent.?    But  the  Russian  Minister  of  P^ducation, 


Casso,  says  in  his  book,  '  Russia  on  the  Danube ' :  '  The  informa- 
tion received  by  the  central  departments  on  Bessaraljia  is  not 
correct.  .  .  .  The  Russian  Year-Book  of  1910,  published  by 
the  Central  Committee  on  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior,  in  enumerating  the  nationalities  of  Bessarabia,  does 
not  even  mention  the  Molda\dan  nation,  altho  this  nation  forms 
more  than  half  of  the  province's  population.' " 

Ukrainia,  to  the  northward,  which  at  first  objected  to  the 
Roumanian  annexation  of  Bessarabia,  on  July  31,  1920,  formally 
accepted  the  new  arrangement  and  sent  a  consul  to  Klishinef . 

The  present  government  of  Roumania  is  headed  by  King 
Ferdinand  I.,  nephew  of  the  late  King  Carol,  whom  he  succeeded 
on  October  11,  1914.  A  Constituent  Assembly,  elected  early 
last  summer,  has  had  its  hands  fuU  unifying  the  different  con- 
stitutions of  the  Old  Kingdom,  Bessarabia,  Bukovina,  and 
Transylvania.  The  ethnographical  map  included  in  Professor 
Stoica's  booklet  on  Bessarabia  shows  a  considerable  colony  of 
Hungarians  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Transylvania,  now  the 
geographical  center  of  the  new  kingdom,  and  colonies  of  Germans, 
Bulgars,,and  Turks  along  the  eastern  Black  Sea  littoral.  The 
mixture  is  further  complicated  by  strains  which  are  not  recorded 
in  official  reports  but  which,  nevertheless,  play  an  important 
part  in  the  life  of  the  nation.  According  to  a  writer  on  this  phase 
of  Roumania  in  "The  Statesman's  Year  Book": 

"Among  Roumanians  there  are  racial  differences  of  which  the 
census  returns  take  no  account.  In  Central  Moldavia  and 
East  Transylvania  there  are  thousands  of  inhabitants  of  ISIagj'ar 
descent  (Changer  and  Szeklers);  in  South  Transylvania  and  in 
the  Banat  there  are  thousands  of  Saxons  and  Swabes.  In  Buko- 
vina and  Bessarabia  there  are  some  German  and  Ruthenian 
colonies.  The  communes  along  the  Danube  have  some  inhabi- 
tants of  Bulgarian  and  Serbian  origin;  in  the  Dobrudja  there 
are  many  foreign  elements — Bulgars,  Russians,  Germans,  but 
the  greatest  part  of  them  are  Turks  and  Tartars." 

There  are  some  three  hundred  thousand  Jews  in  the  country, 
according  to  figures  collected  by  the  Encyclopedia  Britamiica. 
They  constitute  about  one-twentieth  of  the  entire  population, 
said  to  be  "a  larger  proportion  than  in  any  other  country." 

Nearly  80  per  cent,  of  the  entire  Roumanian  population  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.  In  1900  the  country  was  third,  after  the 
United  States  and  Russia,  in  the  production  of  grain.  Here,  as  in 
the  neighboring  agricultural  country  of  Bulgaria,  agrarian  prob- 
lems are  receiving  the  attention  of  the  Government.  Recently,  we 
are  told  by  a  writer  in  Current  History  (New  York),  a  Committee 
on  Agrarian  Reforms  has  been  making  progress  with  "a  com- 
prehensive scheme  for  distributing  land  to  the  peasantry." 

Dealing  with  the  measure  in  detail,  tho  writer  thus  explains  its 
salient  provisions: 

"The  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  1920-21  carried  an  appropria/- 
tion  of  90,900,000  lei  for  this  purpose.  The  land  law,  the  foun- 
datioTis  of  which  were  laid  in  1917,  provides  for  the  (^xpropria- 
tion  of  all  landed  property  over  500  hectares  of  indi\i(lual  hold- 
ing in  the  Old  Kingdom  and  over  100  hectares  in  Bessarabia, 
Bukovina,  and  TraTisylvania.  There  is,  however,  an  influential 
p:i'()U[)  headed  by  Professor  lorga  and  tho  former  Ministers,  Dr. 
Vaida,  Lupu  and  MUialaclie,  to  reduce  the  maximuni  in  Rou- 
mania proi)er  also  to  100  hectares. 

"The  expropriation  m(>asures  apply  in  the  first  place  to  estates 
held  in  mortmain,  and  the  rich  holdings  of  tho  Orthodox  (^hurch 
have  already  been  largel.v  broken  up.  Aj^plieation  of  tlie  law 
meets  with  determined  oi)i)osition  on  tho  part  of  some  of  the 
Magyar  churches  in  Transylvania,  whose  syiniiathizors  exert 
themselves  abroad  to  represent  the  expropriation  proceedings 
being  directed  specifically  against  tho  Magyars — -notwithstand- 
ing the  fact  that  all  land  taken  is  paid  for  in  full  on  tho  basis 
of  pre-war  \ahu^s,  and  that  tho  law  is  ajipliod  to  tlu^  Roumanian 
Church  with  equal  vigor.  The  i)easaTitry  pays  ()5  per  cent,  of 
the  <^\propriati(m  price,  tho  remaining  35  per  cent,  being  borne 
by  the  state.  A  period  of  forty-five  y('ars  is  allowed  for  pay- 
ment. A  sjiecial  'law  of  jjastures'  encourages  cattlo-raising  on 
expropriated  areas,  an  industry  much  needed." 


26 


27 


The  Waning  Turkish  Crescent 


««fT-^HE  LAST  CRUSADE,"  as  a  British  author  char- 
I  acterizes  that  part  of  the  world-war  which  centered 
M  around  the  Turkish  Empire,  has  made  real  one  of  the 
most  ancient  dreams  of  Christian  Europe.  The  Turk  has  finally 
been  driven  out  of  the  holy  places  of  the  East.  His  power  is 
broken,  also,  in  that  "cradle  of  civilization"  which  many 
anthropologists  place  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers, 
in  Christian  Armenia,  where  he  massacred  and  opprest,  in 
Bagdad  of  the  "Thousand  and  One  Nights,"  even  in  Mekka, 
shrine  of  the  Mohammedan  world.  The  present  Turkish  nation 
is  confined  to  the  peninsula  of  Asia  Minor,  with  a  few  square 
miles  of  European  territory  around  Constantinople.  Even  the 
control  of  the  Straits  is  taken  away,  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
neutral  commission  representing  the  League  of  Nations.  Inside 
its  present  ethnographic  boundary,  the  realm  of  the  Sublime 
Porte,  no  longer  literally  worthy  of  the  name  "Turkish  Empire," 
is  suffering  from  such  modem  disturbances  as  Feminism,  Bol- 
shevism, and  a  particularly  violent  form  of  new  democracy. 

This  last  great  dismemberment  of  an  empire  once  comparable 
in  wealth,  in  lu.vury,  and  in  power  to  the  Roman  Empire  of  the 
earlj-  Christian  era,  means  the  loss  to  Turkey  of  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  its  territory  and  more  than  half  its  population. 
Before  the  war,  according  to  figures  presented  in  "The 
Statesman's  Year-Book,"  the  population  was  20,973,000,  dis- 
tributed over  an  empire  of  613,724  square  miles.  The  area  of 
the  new  Turkey,  according  to  the  same  authority,  is  174,900 
square  miles,  and  the  population  about  8,000,000.  England, 
France,  Italy  and  Greece  profit  by  this  "economic  partition," 
as  the  New  York  Times  calls  it.  America  refused  the  job  of 
reorganizing  the  Near  East,  remarks  The  Times,  speaking  for 
several  champions  of  self-determination  who  see  little  good  in 
the  "partition  of  the  spoils  of  war"  among  Britain,  France, 
Italy  and  Greece.  "But  citizens  of  a  nation  which  had  the 
opportunity  to  reorganize  the  country  pretty  much  as  it  pleased 
can  hardly  avert  the  moral  eye  if  others  take  up  the  work  after 
our  refusal.  We  might  have  done  it  better,  but  we  would  not 
do  it  at  all.  British,  French  and  Italian  diplomats  are  going 
about  it  in  the  only  way  they  know."  An  answer  to  these  and 
harsher  criticisms  is  supplied  by  Sirdar  Ikbal  Ali  Shah,  in  The 
Contemporary  Review  (London).  To  turn  these  countries  over 
on  a  basis  of  strict  self-determination,  he  objects,  "would  not 
only  give  rise  to  local  anarchy,  liut  would  constitute  a  direct 
challenge  to  a  Bolshevik  overflow  from  Persia.  .  .  .  To  one  who 
knows  the  East  the  chaos  and  disaster  that  would  spread  from 
British  withdrawal  would  be  all  too  plain."  The  passing  of  the 
Turk  has  not,  in  the  view  of  most  English,  French  and  Italian 
authorities,  made  the  dismembered  portions  of  Turkey  safe  for 
democracy. 

"  'Turkey'  is,  in  a  way,  a  misnomer,"  says  a  contemporary 
historian,  discussing  the  former  empire  in  one  of  the  series  of 
handbooks  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  British  Foreign 
Office: 

"Tlic  old  Turkey  was  not  a  coun(ry  inhaliited  mainly  by 
Turks,  as  Italy  is  inhabited  by  Italians,  England  by  Englishmen, 
Spain  by  Spaniards,  etc.  As  -Austria'  used  to  connote  a 
congeries  of  non-Austrian  races  held  together  l)y  a  dynastic 
system,  so  Turkey,  or  tlie  Ottoman  Ijiiii)ire,  stood  for  a  number 
of  non-Turkish  races  held  togetlur  by  the  militarist  and  theo- 
cratic dynastic  system  of  the  Ottoman  Sultanate.  The  Turkish 
language  ha,s  no  word  for  'Turkey,'  which  would  properly  hv 
Turkestan,  as  Arabistan  stands  for  Arabia.  The  Young  Turks 
have  endeavored  to  po[)ulari/.e  the  Le\aiitim'  form,  i.  e.,  'Turkia.' 

"The  Turks,  or  Turanians,  coming  originally  from  Mongolia, 
spread  westward  through  Turk<stan  and  Nortli  Persia,  until, 
in  the  tenth  century,  the  Seljuk  Turks  entered  Asia  Minor, 
already  largely  Mohammedan,  as  an  organized  military  force 
such  as  had  been  unknown  for  centuries  in  thos«^  regions,  and 
rapidly  absorbed  iind   moldiil    Phrygians,   Cappadocians,   Cili- 


cians,  and  other  indigenous  elements  into  a  Turki  and  Islamic 
state.  In  tne  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Mongol 
invasion,  under  Genghis  Khan,  destroyed  the  vitality  of  the 
Seljuk  Turks,  who,  later  on  in  the  same  century,  welcomed  the 
assistance  of  the  new  Turanian  arrivals,  the  Ottoman  Turks 
of  some  4(30  tents." 

Conquest  followed  conquest.  Constantinople  feU  to  Moham- 
med II.  in  14.53.  Hungary  was  conquered  in  1.526,  Vienna  was 
besieged  in  1529,  and  a  Turkish  admiral  laid  siege  to  Malta  in 
1565.  Failure  in  these  two  latter  enterprises  indicated  the  high- 
water  mark  of  Turkish  progress  westward.  In  Asia  Sultan 
Murad  III.  conquered  a  part  of  Persia  in  1.586,  and  in  1638 
Murad  IV.  effected  the  conquest  of  Bagdad  and  Lower  Mesopo- 
tamia. "The  kernel  of  the  military  system  which  enabled 
Turkey  to  effect  the  rapid  conquest,"  says  the  writer,  was — 

"The  Corps  of  Janissaries,  composed  of  forcibly  Islamized 
Christians,  and  raised  by  'the  human  tribute'  levied  by  press 
gangs  every  five  years  from  the  newly  acquired  Christian 
territories.  They  gradually  acquired  the  position  of  a  privileged 
and  all-powerful  military  caste,  who  were  constantly  clamoring 
for  more  pay  and  favors,  or  to  be  led  on  fresh  expeditions  likely 
to  satisfy  their  cravings  for  booty.  While  they  thus  extended 
the  limits  of  Turkey's  dominions,  their  intrigues  and  revolts  at 
Constantinople,  where  they  constituted  a  pretorian  guard 
weakened  the  Empire  at  its  heart's  center.  They  were  mixed 
up  in  the  seraglio  intrigues  and  factions,  which  brought  about 
frequent  changes  of  Sultan  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries." 

The  huge  empire  crumbled  under  attacks  from  without  and 
lu.xury  and  corruption  within.  In  modern  times  it  became 
little  more  than  a  pawn  in  the  diplomacy  of  Europe,  specifically 
in  the  struggle  of  Russia,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain  for  the 
economic  resources  of  the  East.  The  underlying  ideas  which 
drove  the  Young  Turks  to  side  with  Germany  against  England 
Russia  and  France  are  set  forth  in  a  circular  sent  out  by  them 
on  the  day  following  the  declaration  of  war  between  Turkey  and 
the  Triple  Entente.  It  referred  to  Russia's  exprest  resolve  to 
destroy  Turkey,  and  pointed  out  the  "grabbing  policy"  of 
England  and  France  in  India,  Egypt,  Tunis,  Algeria  and 
Morocco.  The  old  religious  fervor  of  the  time  of  the  Crusades 
appears  in  the  conclusion  of  this  manifesto:  "Our  religious 
principles  urge  us  to  free  the  Mohammedan  world  from  the 
power  of  the  unbelievers  and  to  gi\'e  independence  to  the  fol- 
lowers of  Mohammed." 

Donald  Maxwell,  in  "The  Last  Crusade"  (John  Lane),  recalls 
the  old  saying,  "wherever  the  Turk  rides  nothing  will  grow." 
The  ^vriter  sums  up,  in  this  way,  a  very  general  criticism  of 
Turkish  rule: 

"You  may  travel  up  and  down  the  country  and  look  in  vain 
for  one  good  thing  that  the  Turk  has  done,  one  trace  of  art, 
one  piece  of  architecture,  one  contribution  in  any  way  to  science 
or  knowledge.  .  .  .  The  Turk  cuts  down,  but  never  plants. 
The  great  irrigation  works  which  made  Mesopotamia  the 
granar.\'  of  the  ancient  world  were  not  allowed  to  decay  until 
the  Turk  came.  The  blight  of  Turkish  rule  d(\scended  like  a 
destroying  plague.  If  a  man  by  j)riva(e  enterprise  did  something 
to  irrigate  his  lunil  and  improve  his  crops,  the  Turk  came  down 
on  him  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold  as  a  collector  of  taxes,  so  that  the 
last  state  of  that  man  was  worse  than  the  first  and  nobody 
dared  to  follow  his  example." 

A  Nationalist,  anti-Allied  revolt,  centering  at  Angora,  Ana- 
tolia, under  the  leadership  of  Mustafa  Kemal,  followed  the 
Turkish  Government's  signature  of  the  Peace  Treaty.  Shortly 
afterward  the  Arabs  rose  against  the  British  and  the  French,  the 
Greeks  attacked  the  Turk  Nationalists,  and  the  Nationalists 
attacked  the  British.  These  various  difficulties,  most  of  which 
have  either  been  settled  or  bid  fair  to  be  settled  by  compromises, 
are  overshadowed,  in  (he  o]iinion  of  most  observers,  by  the 
menace  of  the  Russian  Bolsheviki,  who  control  Armenia  and 
are  in  alliance  with  the  Turkish  Nationalists. 


28 


29 


The  New  Transcaucasian  Republics 


THREE  NATIONS  liave  arisen  out  of  that  "Federal 
Democratic  Republic  of  Transcaucasia"  which  was 
formed  with  such  high  hopes  ir.  November,  1917,  and 
their  recent  history  is  the  historj',  in  miniature,  of  Russia. 
Armenia  is  a  little  Russia,  with  Turkish  complications.  Azer- 
baijan consists  of  a  large  population  of  Tartar  peasants  controlled 
by  a  few  Russian  and  Ai-menian  Bolsheviki,  much  after  the 
manner  made  familiar  in  Moscow.  Georgia,  the  last  of  the 
three  to  turn  Bolshevik,  upbraids  the  Allies  for  their  perfidy 
in  a  way  that  echoes  Trotzky  and  LenLne.  Paxton  Hibben, 
F.R.G.S.,  late  captain  in  the  United  States  Military  Commission 
to  Armenia,  now  connected  -with  the  Near  East  Relief,  agrees 
to  the  extent  of  blaming  "the  intrigues  and  exploitation  of  the 
Great  Powers"  for  the  disappearance  of  "the  last  hold  of  the 
anti-Bolshe^dki  between  India  and  the  Mediterranean  and  be- 
tween the  White  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf."  "The  present 
weakness  of  Armenia  is  due  very  largely  to  the  British.  They 
stript  her  fortresses  of  artillery  in  order  to  strengthen 
Denikin — who,  by  the  way,  always  asserted  the  Russian 
claim  to  its  old  Caucasian  provinces,"  he  writes,  in.  The  World 
To-morrow  (New  York). 

As  neither  the  League  of  Nations  nor  any  of  the  Entente  gov- 
ernments can  undertake  a  mandate  for  Turkish  Armenia,  notes 
"The  Statesman's  Year-Book,"  "the  country  is  left  to  its  own 
resources."  By  the  end  of  1921,  the  territory  was  practically 
di\'ided  between  the  Turks  and  the  Russians,  excepting  only  the 
Zangezur  district,  which  had  not  been  occupied.  According  to 
Russian  official  statistics  published  at  the  beginning  of  1917,  the 
population  of  the  Republic  amounted  to  2,159,000,  of  whom  66 
per  cent,  were  Christians  and  about  31  per  cent.  Mohammedans. 
Since  1917,  owing  to  the  war,  part  of  the  Mohammedan  popular 
tion  has  left  and  some  300,000  Armenians  have  returned.  The 
total  present  population  of  united  Armenia  "in  the  widest  extent 
claimed,"  has  been  estimated  by  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book" 
at  about  8,000,000.  The  area,  as  constituted  by  the  Treaty  of 
Se\Tes  and  as  delimited  by  ex-President  Wilson  of  the  United  States, 
is  estimated  by  the  same  authority  at  about  80,000  square  miles. 

Since  1914,  according  to  a  memorandum  presented  to  Secretary 
of  State  Hughes  by  The  American  Committee  for  the  Indepen- 
dence of  Armenia,  "the  Turks  have  wiped  out  some  1,000,000 
men,  women  and  children  ■nath  brutality  unexampled  in  history." 
Documents  produced  in  Berlin  at  the  trial  of  a  young  Armenian, 
who  was  accused  and  acquitted  of  the  murder  of  Talaat  Pasha,  a 
former  leader  of  the  Young  Turks,  are  held  to  prove  that  "The 
heads  of  the  Turkish  Government  at  Constantinople  were  directly 
responsible  for  converting  the  so-called  'deportations'  into  a 
shambles."  So  writes  George  R.  ^Montgomery,  director  of  the 
Armenian-America  Society  in  The  Current  History  Magazine,  New 
York.  He  presents  signed  orders  for  the  massacre  of  men,  women 
and  children,  and  comments: 

"Heretofore  there  have  been  defenders  of  the  Ottomans  who 
held  that  the  massacres  were  not  a  plan  of  the  Government,  but 
were  due  to  the  lirutality  of  those  who  carried  out  the  deportation 
instructions.  At  the  trial  of  Teilirian  th(!ro  weroj)laeed  in  evi- 
dence fac-similcs  and  translations  of  signed  orders  from  Talaat — 
letters  and  ciplier  telegrams  which  prove  that  the  instructions  to 
massacre  origiTiated  in  Constantinople.  As  Aleppo  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  "Deportation  Cornraittce,"  the  capture  of  Aleppo 
by  the  British  made  possible  the  securing  of  these  official  docu- 
ments from  the  archives.  This  evidence  directly  linking  the  mur- 
dered Talaat  with  tlie  inhuman  deeds  that  were  covered  by  the 
general  term  "deportation"  was  irrefutable  and  overwhelming. 
The  documents  cstal)lislK)(l  once  and  for  all  the  fact  that  the  pur- 
pose of  the  Turkish  authorities  was  not  deportation  but  amii- 
nilation." 

The  Soviet  Republic  of  Azerbaijan  has  a  population,  "based 
on  defective  Russian  statistics,"  says  "The  Statesman's  Year- 
Book."  estimated  at  4,615,000.  of  whom  3,482,000  arc  Tartars, 


795,000  Armenians,  and  26,580  Georgians,  and  the  area  is  stated 
to  be  about  40,000  square  miles.  The  oil-wells  around  Baku 
form  the  "economic  motive"  back  of  most  of  the  new  country's 
internal  and  external  struggles.  Georgia  is  credited  with  an  area 
of  35,500  square  miles,  and  a  population,  according  to  statistics 
for  1915,  of  3,176,156.  About  90  per  cent,  of  the  population  is 
engaged  in  agriculture,  but  methods  are  said  to  be  primitive. 
The  principal  crop  is  corn.  The  land  of  the  great  landowners, 
following  the  elevation  to  power  of  the  Social  Democratic  party, 
has  been  distributed  among  the  peasants. 

"The  Georgians  claim  that  they  first  appear  in  authentic 
history  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,"  says  a  writer  in 
"The  Statesman's  Year-Book, "epitomizing  the  present  repub- 
lic's long  and  eventful  history: 

"But  on  Alexander's  death  (323  B.C.),  the  Georgians  regained 
their  independence.  In  1801  the  Russian  Emperor  Alexander  I. 
annexed  the  Kingdom  of  Georgia.  When  the  Bolshevist  regime 
was  set  up  in  Russia  the  Georgians,  together  ■with  the  Tartars 
and  Armenians,  formed  the  Transcaucasian  Republic.  Georgia 
was  eventually  forced  to  form  a  separate  State,  and  on  May  26, 
1918,  its  independence  was  proclaimed  in  Tifhs  by  the  represen- 
tative organ,  the  National  Council,  elected  by  the  National 
Assembly  of  Georgia  on  November  22,  1917.  The  Act  of  Inde- 
pendence of  Georgia  was  approved,  confirmed  and  ratified  on 
March  12,  1919,  by  the  Constituent  Assembly,  elected  according 
to  the  electoral  system  of  direct,  equal,  uni^'ersal,  secret  and 
proportional  voting  of  citizens  of  both  sexes.  The  Government 
received  ie  jure  recognition  by  the  Allies  on  January  27,  1921." 

"The  Caucasus  range  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  all 
geological  phenomena,"  writes  William  Eleroy  Curtis  in  "Around 
the  Black  Sea"  (Hodder  &  Stoughton),  taking  up  some  of  the 
backgrounds  of  the  new  nations: 

"It  is  the- boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  an  almost 
Impenetrable  wall  wliich  can  be  crossed  by  vehicles  or  hoi  semen 
in  only  two  places,  known  as  the  Dariel  and  the  Manisson  passes. 
From  the  beginning  of  history  untU  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  the 
boundary  of  the  world.  Beyond,  all  was  mystery  and  fable,  and 
for  that  reason  the  ancients  made  the  Caucasus  the  scene  of  much 
mythological  activity  and  the  home  of  many  marvels.  They 
called  the  country  Colchis,  and  it  was  there  that  Jason  and 
the  Argonauts  found  the  Golden  Fleece.  Prometheus  was 
chained  to  one  of  the  peaks  by  the  gods  to  punish  him  for  giving 
fire  to  the  mortals.  .  .  .  The  first  Europeans  to  find  their  way 
through  the  rocky  labyrinths  were  Greek  and  Genoese  traders, 
who  crawled  through  the  canons  on  foot  in  the  Middle  Ages  in 
search  of  customers." 

"Armenia  is  perhaps  the  oldest  of  all  the  Christian  countries 
in  the  world,"  says  the  writer,  in  a  chapter  headed  "The  Arme- 
nians and  Their  Persecution."  "It  was  a  powerful  nation  at  the 
advent  of  Christ,  altho  at  different  periods  in  its  history  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus,  the  Macedonians  under 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  the  Romans  under  the  Ciesars." 
Trebizond  was  founded  some  years  before  the  founding  of  Rome. 
There  is  a  legend  that — 

"One  of  the  early  kings  of  Armenia,  having  heard  of  the 
teacliings  of  Jesus  and  his  persecution  by  the  Jews,  sent  him  a 
letter  by  a  distinguished  envoy  offering  him  the  hospitality  of 
Armenia  and  the  \videst  freedom  in  carrying  on  his  work.  The 
Armenians  have  had  a  stormy  time  in  defense  of  their  religion 
ever  since.  Theological  controversies  began  early  among  them, 
and  persecution  has  been  relentless." 

In  spite  of  their  persecution,  the  Armenians,  as  did  the  almost 
equally  persecuted  Jews,  prospered.  At  least,  says  the  writer, 
who  visited  the  country  a  few  years  before  the  Great  War: 

"The  Armenians  are  the  big  dealers,  the  bankers,  the  money- 
lenders, and,  like  most  prosperous  people,  are  the  object  of 
jealousy  and  resentment.  I  was  told  that  when  an  Armenian 
loans  money  ho  expects  to  have  it  rei)aid.  His  business  roputar- 
tion  is  fine,  but  the  people  who  owe  him  money  hate  him.  All 
the  Armenians  are  thrifty,  industrious,  and  temperate,  and  do 
not  waste  their  substance  in  riotous  living." 


30 


31 


The  New  Republic  of  Finland 


THE  SCANDINAVIAN  COUNTRIES  have  been  pre- 
sented by  the  fortunes  of  war  with  a  new  neighbor  of 
allied  culture,  almost  as  large  as  Sweden  and  considera- 
bly larger  than  the  smaUer  partner,  Norway.  The  new  Republic, 
Finland,  lately  detached  with  some  difficulty  from  northwestern 
Russia,  is  credited  with  145,686  square  miles  of  area  and  a 
population  of  about  3,400,000.  These  figures,  which  are  pre- 
sented by  The  Finland  Review  (New  York),  and  practically 
confirmed  by  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book."  represent  an  area 
about  the  size  of  Montana  and  a  population  approximately  equal 
to  that  of  Massachusetts.  Some  17,000  square  miles  of  the  new 
republic  (10.83  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area)  consist  !of  numerous 
little  lakes  and  ponds,  which  suggested  the  ancient  name  of 
"Fenland,"  modified  into  the  "Finland"  of  to-day. 

Sweden,  the  central  as  well  as  the  largest  and  most  powerful 
member  of  the  trinity  of  northern  countries,  has  been  especially 
active  in  spreading  its  culture  throughout  Finland.  "In  America 
the  Finns  are  often  called  Scandinavians,"  observes  J.  J.  Seder- 
holm,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  "The  Aland  Question  from  a 
Swedi-sh-Finlander's  Point  of  View,"  issued  at  Helsingfors  by 
the  Uovernment  Printing-Office.  "Professor  Ripley,  in  his  great 
anthropological  handbook,  refers  Scandinavians  and  Finns  alike 
to  the  same  'Nordic'  race."  Both  Swedish  and  Finnish  are 
official  languages  throughout  the  Republic.  Of  the  total  popula- 
tion, 87.73  per  cent,  speak  Finni.sh,  according  to  government 
figures,  as  against  11.79  per  cent,  who  speak  Swedish. 

A  recent  monograph,  "The  Republic  of  Finland,"  issued  by  the 
Central  Statistical  Bureau  of  Helsingfors,  traces  the  Swedish 
colonization  of  the  country  back  to  the  first  centuries  a.d.  The 
Finns,  who  amalgamated  with  the  Swedes  to  form  the  present 
population,  came  from  the  eastward.  Ethnologists  class  them 
with  the  Hungarians.  They  are  "a  strong,  hardy  race  of  low 
stature,  with  almost  round  heads,  low  foreheads,  flat  features, 
and  somewhat  brownish  complexions,"  according  to  an  ethnolo- 
gist writing  in  the  "Encyclopedia  Britannica."  "Many  of  their 
physical  and  moral  characteristics  they  have  in  common  with  the 
so-called  Mongolian  race,  to  which  they  are  no  doubt  ethnically, 
if  not  also  linguistically,  related."  Whatever  their  original  char- 
acteristics, recent  statistics  .show  that,  in  both  stature  and  color- 
ing, it  is  hard  to  distinguish  between  modern  Finlanders  of  pure 
Finnish,  Swedish-Finnish,  and  pure  Swedish  descent.  About  78 
per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  of  Finland,  according  to  the  mono- 
graph on  "The  Republic  of  Finland"  quoted  above,  are  blue- 
eyed,  and  about  .57  per  cent.  ar<^  light-haired.  "  In  the  latter  part 
of  the  thirteenth  century,"  this  authority  proceeds,  "when  the 
Finns  were  united  politically  to  Sweden,  the  Finns  had  attained 
almost  the  same  degree  of  culture  as  the  Swedes,  and  the  union 
with  Sweden  in  no  way  implied  thi!  subjugation  of  an  inferior 
nation." 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  troojjs  of  the  Czar  l'et(.'r  the 
Great  penetrated  the  country  again  and  again,  devastating, 
plundering,  and  burning  in  a  reign  of  terror  called  by  the  people 
of  Finland  "the  Time  of  (Ircat  Hate."  Finally,  in  1809,  Finland 
was  forcibly  annexed  to  Russia  in  a  bondage  which  was  ended 
by  the  Russian  Revolution  of  1917.  The  bloody  warfare  which 
followed  between  the  so-called  "White"  and  "Red"  elements  in 
Finland  was  finally  won  by  the  "Whites,"  with  (he  assistance 
of  German  troops. 

Finland  has  been  particularl.y  fortunate  in  the  outcome  of  her 
border  disputes  with  her  neighbors.  She  inherited  two  disputes, 
neither  of  which  developed  the  bitterness  such  matters  aroused 
with  most  of  the  other  ni^w  nations,  and  both  of  the  disijutes  have 
been  decido^d  in  her  favor.  The  Aland  Island  question,  resulting 
from  th(!  claims  of  both  Sweden  and  Finland  ou  (In-  group  of 
islands  lying  between  the  two  countries  at  the  <'iilraiice  to  llie 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  is  cited  as  an  example  of  the  definite  accomplish- 


ments of  the  League  of  Nations.  A  Commission,  appointed  by 
the  League  and  approved  by  the  two  powers  concerned,  went  into 
the  matter,  and  the  award  was  accepted  by  Sweden  as  well  as 
by  Finland.  An  authoritative  handbook  on  the  Islands  ("The 
Aland  Islands,"  Prepared  under  the  Direction  of  the  Historical 
Section  of  the  British  Foreign  Office,  London),  reaches  the  con- 
clusion that,  arguing  from  racial  or  economic  ties,  or  "self-deter- 
mination" bj'  the  islanders,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  archipelago 
should  have  gone  to  Sweden.    However,  adds  the  writer: 

"  It  appears  that  the  Svecomen  population  in  Finland,  number- 
ing some  400,000,  objected  to  the  separation.  This  is  not  sur- 
prizing, for,  tho  the  islanders  form  but  an  inconsiderable 
accession  to  the  Swedish  hloc  in  the  diet  of  Finland,  the  Swedish 
vote  would  lose  by  their  secession.  It  was  also  argued  on  the 
Finnish  side  that  to  apply  the  doctrine  of  self-determination  to 
so  small  a  district  and  to  so  minute  a  fraction  (one-seventeenth) 
of  the  Swedo-Finn  population  would  be  to  reduce  the  doctrine  to 
absurdity;  and  that,  if  applied  on  behalf  of  the  Alanders,  it 
should  also  be  granted  to  the  Svecomans.  Such  an  application 
would  be  impossible." 

The  other  border  question,  called  Finland's  "chief  territorial 
problem,"  is  thus  dealt  with  by  Isaiah  Bowman  in  his  recent 
volume,  "The  New  World:   Problems  in  Political  Geography": 

"The  main  points  in  contention  were  the  question  of  an  outlet 
for  Finland  on  the  Arctic  Ocean  (Pechenga  region)  and  the  dis- 
position of  eastern  Karelia,  a  province  occupied  by  a  people  ra- 
cially aUied  to  the  Finns.  An  agreement  was  finally  reached  in  a 
treaty  signed  October  14,  1920,  and  ratified  December  29,  1920. 
The  boundary  articles  of  the  treaty  of  Dorpat  assign  to  Finland 
a  strip  of  the  Arctic  coast  and  connecting  territory;  and  other  arti- 
cles provide  for  the  neutralization  of  the  frontier.  The  treaty 
also  guarantees  autonomy  to  eastern  Karelia  and  to  the  Karelian 
popidation  of  Archangel  and  Olonetz  (northeast  of  Lake  Ladoga), 
which  is  Cireek  Orthodo.x  in  religion  and  Russian  in  civilization 
and  has  no  marked  political  preference.  Transportation  and 
rafting  of  timber  on  waters  crossing  the  boundary  line  is  to  be 
permitted  to  both  countries.  Commercial  freedom  of  wide  scope 
is  guaranteed  in  articles  on  the  use  of  ports,  railways,  telegraph 
lines,  freight  and  customs  rates,  on  fishing  rights,  harbor  fees, 
and  the  like. 

"The  Pechenga  region  which  Finland  gained  is  a  small, 
barren  strip  on  the  Arctic  shore.  Its  significance  arises  out  of  the 
temjiering  effect  exercised  by  a  branch  of  the  warmer  waters  of 
the  north  Atlantic  drift  (usually  called  the  Gulf  Stream),  whereby 
the  ports  of  Pechenga  and  Alexandrovsk,  250  miles  north  of  the 
Arctic  Circle  remain  open  tlu-oughout  tht  winter  months,  when 
aU  the  ports  of  the  eastern  Baltic  and  the  White  Sea  are  closed 
by  ice.  Archangel  is  icebound  for  nine  months  each  year.  It 
was  to  seciu-e  an  open  port  that  Russia  built  the  Murman  rail- 
way to  C'atherine  Harbor  (Alexandrovsk).  The  northern  ports 
would  be  of  far  less  importance  if  it  were  not  that  Russia  has 
already  lost  all  her  Baltic  ports  except  Petrograd,  and  may  lose 
others  on  the  Black  Sea  and  in  eastern  Siberia." 

Finland  and  Sweden  having  had  the  friendly  assistance  of  the 
League  of  Nations  in  the  settlement  of  the  Aland  Island  dispute, 
concludes  Mr.  Bowman: 

"The  bond  between  these  two  states  ought  to  become  as  strong 
as  will  be,  ill  time,  that  with  the  Esths  and  Letts.  In  short,  the 
external  political  problems  of  Finland  are  relatively  simple;  her 
chief  danger  lies  in  the  radical  elements  within  her  borders  and 
the  dilTlculties  that  naturally  attend  development  of  a  strong 
democratic  government The  conservative  part  of  the  popu- 
lation fears  Red  disturbances,  and  the  Reds  fear  that  the  Whites 
will  set  up  a  reactionary  government.  The  jirogress  of  the  settle- 
ment ami  unification  of  the  political  life  of  the  country  is  made 
more  dillicull  by  proximity  with  Soviet  Russia." 

Finnish  culture,  bolli  of  liiid.\-  and  niiiul.  ranks  witii  the  most 
thorough  and  progressi\e  in  IIk!  world.  The  "Kalavala,"  the 
great  Finnish  epic,  is  givt^n  a  place  by  many  critics  but  littler  lowei* 
tliiiri  the  "Iliad."  Tin'  new  Republic  led  the  other  nations, 
notably  America,  in  granting  full  legal  and  suffrage  equality 
to  women,  and  in  enacting  a  law  of  national  prohibition. 


32 


33 


The  New  Republics  of  Poland  and  Lithuania 


POLAND'S  LONG  TRAGEDY,  the  partition  of  its  lands 
and  peoples  among  its  three  powerful  neighbors,  was 
brought  to  an  end  by  the  Great  War.  With  regard  to 
regained  and  added  territorj^,  at  least,  the  Poland  of  to-day  has 
been  even  more  fortunate  than  many  of  its  best  friends  hoped. 
The  terms  which  it  was  able  to  impose  upon  the  vanquished 
Russians  included  territory  on  the  eastern  frontier  beyond  the 
ethnographical  map  of  Poland  as  prepared  by  E.  F.  Benson,  the 
British  novelist,  in  his  plea  for  Polish  freedom  and  unity,  issued 
under  the  title  of  "The  White  Eagle  of  Poland"  (Doran)  in  the 
last  year  of  the  war.  Poland  now  presents  "an  imposing  appear- 
ance upon  the  map  of  Europe,"  comments  the  London  Sphere, 
and,  in  fact,  with  its  present  expanded  boundaries,  the  new 
republic  takes  rank  with  the  gi-eat  nations.  Its  area,  appro.xi- 
mately  150,000  square  mDes,  is  but  little  less  than  that  of  Ger- 
many and  considerably  greater  than  Italy's.  None  of  the  other 
new  countries  produced  by  the  war  compares  with  it  either  in 
size  or  population.  Its  ambitions,  however,  have  been  said  to  be 
even  larger  than  its  territories,  and  it  has  been  severely  criticized 
by  its  neighbors,  especially  by  Lithuania  on  the  north,  for  ap- 
plying to  them  the  same  methods  from  which  it  suffered  itself 
until  rescued  by  the  Allies.  Vilna,  the  ancient  Lithuanian  capi- 
tal, held  by  PoHsh  irregulars,  is  compared  by  the  Lithuanians  to 
Warsaw,  the  old  capital  of  Poland,  so  long  held  by  Russia. 

In  the  days  of  its  greatest  power,  before  the  partition  of  1772, 
Poland  was  almost  twice  as  large  as  the  present  nation.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as  "The  Statesman's 
Year-Book"  sketches  the  siibsequent  fall  of  the  elective  kingdom, 
"the  country  rapidly  shrank"  under  outside  pressure  and  inner 
demoralization.  "Eventually,"  to  quote  this  authority,  "by  the 
three  partitions  of  1772,  1793,  and  1795,  the  Polish  Common- 
wealth, as  it  was  then  called,  was  divided  between  Prussia,  Russia 
and  Austria.  Successive  rebellions  were  crusht  out  with  iron 
severity.  In  1807  Napoleon  formed  a  part  of  the  Old  Common- 
wealth into  a  semi-independent  state  under  the  title  of  the  Duchy 
of  Warsaw  and  endowed  it  with  a  very  liberal  constitution,  but 
in  1815,  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  this  was  undone,  and  Poland 
was  rcpartitioned  among  Prussia,  Austria  and  Russia,  except  the 
small  district  of  Kjakow,  which  was  constituted  an  independent 
republic  and  remained  such  until  1835,  when  it  was  anne.xed  by 
Austria,  despite  a  g:uaranty  of  neutrality  by  Prussia,  Austria  and 
Russia." 

To-day  the  population  of  Poland,  according  to  a  statement  by 
W.  .1.  Kelly,  head  of  the  Polish  Bureau  of  Information  in  New 
York  City,  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  30,000,000.  Exact  figures, 
of  course,  are  not  obtainable,  and  other  estimates  range  from 
24,000,000  to  35,000,000.  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book" 
estimates  the  population  in  1921  at  24,272,349.  The  complete 
area  is  estimated  at  149,042  square  miles.  Both  of  tlie.se  esti- 
mates are  exclusive  of  the  portion  of  Upper  Silesia  awarded  to 
I'oland  by  the  League  of  Nations. 

The  old  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  otherwise  called  Congress  Poland 
or  the  Duchy  of  Poland  and  marked  "I"  on  the  accomijanying 
map,  is  the  radiating  center  from  which  Polish  arms  and  the 
favor  of  the  Allies  have  extended  the  power  of  the  new  republic 
to  its  present  large  boundaries.  The  section  marked  "4"  on  the 
map,  east  of  the  lino  marked  "Polish  Civil  Administration  ap- 
proved by  Allies  in  1919,"  has  aroused  much  discussion.  This 
territory,  conquered  from  the  Bolsheviki,  includes  the  valuable 
Russian  railway  between  Rovno  and  Vilna.  In  this  region,  says 
a  fiispatch  from  Washington  to  the  Now  York  Time.i,  it  is  claimed 
that  one-quarter  of  the  population  of  1  ,.">()(), 0(K)  are  Poli.sh,  one- 
quarter  Jews,  and  the  remaining  half  white  Ruthenians.  A  Polish 
apologist,  Joseph  Freilich,  Ph.D.,  in  a  pamphlet  on  the  "Funda^ 
mental  Conditions  of  the  Economic  Independence  of  Poland," 
issued  by  the  Polish  National  Defense  Committee  of  (^hi<!ago, 


defends  this  crossing  of  the  ethnographical  boundary  by  pleading 
for  an  "economic  boundary"  in  its  place.  The  "economic- 
boundary"  theory,  in  general,  seems  to  imply  that  territory 
should  belong  to  the  nation  which  does  the  most  business  in  it. 

An  even  more  unsettled  condition  e.xists  in  the  territory  marked 
"6,"  centering  about  VUna,  the  old  capital  of  Lithuania.  The 
Polish  Army,  under  General  Zelgouski,  which  seized  Vilna  for 
Poland  in  some  such  unofficial  way  as  d'Annunzio  seized  Fiume 
for  Italy,  refuses  to  evacuate,  and  the  Lithuanians  oppose  the 
plebiscite  by  which  the  League  of  Nations  proposes  to  settle 
the  diflieulty.  According  to  a  cablegram  from  the  Lithuanian 
Foreign  Office  at  Kovno  to  the  representative  of  Lithuania  at 
Washington : 

"The  Lithuanian  Government  and  people  are  distrustful  of  the 
efficacy  of  the  League  of  Nations  in  securing  impartial  conditions 
for  the  plebiscite.  They  fear  that  the  troops  of  Zelgouski, 
numbering  200,000  or  more,  now  occupying  the  region  around 
VUna,  may  manage  to  participate  in  the  plebiscite." 

The  Lithuanian  claims  to  the  territory,  as  presented  in  a 
pamphlet  entitled  "Expose  du  Conflil  Lithuano-Polotiais," 
(Geneva,  1921),  include  the  claims  that  throughout  the  region 
Lithuanians  constitute  the  native  population;  that  the  city  of 
VUna  was  founded  by  a  Lithuanian  Grand  Duke  at  the  com- 
mencement of  tlie  19th  century,  "upon  territory  inhabited  from 
time  immemorial  by  a  Lithuanian  population",  that  Lithuania 
can  hardly  exist  as  an  economic  unit  with. a  foreign  power  in 
possession  of  this  central  city,  the  former  capital,  that  the  public 
edifices  of  Vilna,  the  churches  and  the  homes  of  the  Lithuanian 
aristocracy,  have  "a  high  historic  and  national  significance  "for  all 
Lithuanians;  that  Vilna  has  long  been  the  intellectual,  artistic,  and 
religious  center  of  Lithuania;  that,  to  translate  from  the  protest; 

"During  the  whole  duration  of  its  existence  as  a  sovereign 
state  and  later,  in  the  epoch  of  the  fight  for  liberation,  Lithuania, 
with  VUna  at  its  head,  has  continually  affirmed  and  defended 
its  iiidi\idual  nationality  and  its  right  to  absolute  independence. 
Moreover,  the  union  vdth  Poland  has  never  been  an  expression  of 
the  free-\vill  of  Lithuania,  but  was  imposed  on  the  country  by 
Poland,  which  profited  by  the  difficulties  of  the  Grand  Duchy.  .  .  . 
It  was  at  Vilna  that  Lithuania  endured,  during  the  epoch  of 
Russian  domination,  the  most  cruel  ordeals  in  its  struggle  for 
liberty,  and  it  is  that  city  which  is  the  center  of  the  political  and 
intellectual  renaissance  of  the  Lithuania  of  to-day." 

A  case  of  similarly  disputed  ownership  exists  in  the  territory 
marked  "7."  StOl  another  boundary  dispute,  lately  settled  by 
the  League  of  Nations  in  the  territory  marked  "5,"  gives  Poland 
a  valuable  coal  area  in  former  German  territory,  tho  some- 
what less  in  extent  than  she  claimed.  Her  attempt  to  take  this 
territory  by  force,  in  defiance  both  of  Germany  and  of  the  League 
of  Nations,  delayed  tho  settlement  for  some  time. 

"Poland  is  the  gateway  to  Central  and  Southern  Russia," 
begins  a  brief  description  of  the  new  Republic,  accompanying  an 
economic  map  of  its  territory  recently  issued  by  the  Falls 
National  Bank,  of  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.  During  the  past  and 
present  year  various  steamshij)  lines  have  established  service  to 
Danzig,  which  is  rapidly  becoming  "a  great  world  seaport" 
Galicia  produces  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  petroleum  outpuc 
of  tho  world,  according  to  this  authority,  and  coal  and  iron  ore 
which,  together  with  petroleum,  constitute  the  basis  of  national  in- 
dustrial jirosperity,  have  boon  produced  in  recent  years  at  the  rate 
of  approximately  63,0(X),000  tons  of  coal  to  206,000  tons  of  Ton. 

Tho  present  President  of  the  Republic,  Gen(?ral  Pilsudslci.  is 
considered  rather  more  radical  and  democratic  than  tho  party 
headed  by  the  ex-Premier  PadiTewski,  the  great  i)ianist  now  in 
the  United  States  in  the  interest  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
Premier  Witos,  of  tho  Peasant  party,  is  working  in  conjunction 
with  tho  Socialists  to  improve  agricultural  and  industrial 
conditions." 


34 


^  \ r^ 

POLAND  AND  LITHUANIA 


Old  Lithuania I 

Territory  claimed  by  Poland  j. 
—  (6)  and  (7)  shown  thus L 


Congress  Poland 


Acquired  territory  up  to  1921 

Division  Line  botwec-n  Polanti  anr] 
Germany,  da  determined  by  Council  of 
tile  Lea«ue  of  Nations,  and  accepted 
by  file  Supreme  Council  of  the  Allies 
shown  thus. 

International  Territory .    . 


r^TTT-1 


COPYRIGHT,  1921,   DY  FUNK  A  WAGNALLS  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK 
THE  MATTHEW6-N0RTHRUP  W0RK6,  BUFFALO,  N.  Y, 


Scale  of  Miles 


_!3? 


Kilometers 
y    10  20    ^   40    ,    60    ^    8p    ,    100 

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ind  Lithuania,  to  hi      'l 


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INE 


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of  Poland,  formerly  Russian 


^ 


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East  I'russia,  and  part  of  Sil-  (?)  Vilna  and  vicitiity  in  dispute 

esia,  ceded  by  Germany  to  Poland,  between  Poland  and  Lithuania. 

(?)  Galiria  from  Austria-Hunearv  Plebiscite  abandoned,  to  besettled 

to  Poland.  by  arbitration. 

(4)  Part   of  Russia  acquired  by  ©Part  of  Suwalkl,  proposed  to^ ^ 

Poland    through    the    Polish-  Eo  to  Lithuania.                                     '-yl 

Russian    Soviet  agreement,  Oct.  (3)  Memel,     with    part    of   East 

20,  1920.  Prussia  north  of  the  Niemen. 

(6)Upper  Sifesia.    Division  "Line  ceded  by  Germany  to  Allied  and 

^  determined  by  Council  of  the  Associated  Powers.                            -^  X  Tv»' 

J.eague  of  Nations.and  accepted  ®  Free  City  of  Danzig,  interna-,   -    ' 

I  by  the  Supreme  Council  of  the  tional  urder  guarantee  of  the     xi  TT  M  /-• 

'Allies  shown  thus:"*--b-+— t*—  League  of  Nations.                                11  U  W  Ijr 


Sambi 
D,fohobycz, 

yslaw 
urka 
,    ,    C 
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.  Horodenka  5 


-^ 
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ARY' 


,   ,"\Czorikow  f    o 


Lon^tude     East 


R   O  1^^/M   A   N 


35 


The  Island  Nations  of  the  Pacific 


BALANCES  OF  POWER,  national  interests,  and  the 
ownership  of  some  hundreds  of  ishmds  in  the  Far-Eastern 
regions  of  the  Pacific,  badly  upset  by  that  world  cata- 
clysm which  centered  in  northern  France,  have  settled  back  to 
times  of  peace  under  very  much  changed  conditions.  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  have  recei^'ed  such  a  large  measure  of  self- 
government  that  they  may  be  considered  practicaUy  independent 
nations.  The  former  German  possessions  have  been  divided 
between  them  and  the  Empire  of  Japan.  In  this  case,  as  it  has 
been  observed  elsewhere  in  the  break-up  of  old  empires  into  small 
nations,  "every  little  nation  has  a  problem  of  its  own,"  and  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand  find  themselves  somewhat  at  odds  with 
Great  Britain  and  Japan  over  the  arrangement  of  the  Oceanic 
mandates.  When  Great  Britain  and  Japan  notified  the  League 
of  Nations  that  they  had  prolonged  their  Treaty  of  Alliance  for 
one  year,  "considerable  opposition  was  exprest  by  the  Austra- 
lian press,"  observes  Current  History  (New  York).  Australia's 
feeling  against  the  Japanese  is  said  to  resemble  the  feeling  aroused 
on  our  own  California  coast,  and  "racial  discrimination"  is  being 
as  strongly  opposed  by  the  Japanese  Government  there  as  here. 
A  further  complication  is  added  by  our  Government's  refusal  to 
recognize  the  Japanese  mandates  in  the  North  Pacific.  China, 
also,  is  reported  to  be  far  from  resigned  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 
which  give  to  Japan  considerable  slices  of  Chinese  territory  and 
■\'aluable  rights  in  much  larger  areas. 

Japan,  presented  with  all  the  former  German  islands  north  of 
the  equator  in  addition  to  the  Chinese  territory  referred  to,  has 
profited  notably  by  the  war.  The  total  area  of  the  empire  in 
1914,  according  to  "The  Statesman's  Year  Book"  for  that  year, 
was  about  175,.540  square  miles,  with  a  total  population  of  about 
53,000,000.  The  present  area,  according  to  the  1921  edition  of 
the  same  book,  is  260,738  square  miles.  Four  hundred  and 
eighty-nine  small  islands  are  included  in  this  estimate.  The 
population  in  1918,  exclusive  of  the  dependencies  of  Korea, 
Taiwan,  and  Karafuto,  was  placed  at  57,070,936.  The  total, 
including  these  provinces,  is  given  as  77,005,510,  which  may 
be  compared  to  an  American  population  of  approximately  one- 
third  larger  in  an  area  more  than  ten  times  as  large. 

It  was  in  1853,  Isaiah  Bowman,  the  geogi-aphical  expert,  re- 
minds us  in  his  new  volume,  "The  New  World:  Problems  in 
Political  Geography,"  that  Commodore  Perry,  with  an  American 
fleet,  demanded  protection  for  American  sailors  and  property 
wrecked  on  the  coast,  and  permission  for  American  ships  to  use 
Japanese  ports  as  a  base  for  food  or  for  trade,  thus  forcing  Japan 
"into  the  current  of  modern  international  life."  He  continues, 
taking  up  the  remarkable  development  of  the  Empire  since  that 
time: 

"After  1808  Japan  modified  her  political  and  social  institu- 
tions in  what  is  probably  the  most  complete  and  radical  change 
of  its  kind  that  has  ever  occurred  in  the  world's  hi.story.  The 
basis  of  Japanese  social  and  military  organization  had  been  feu- 
dalism, hi  1868  the  system  was  abolished  by  revolution,  and  a 
national  spirit  sprang  up  th'at  was  to  be  used  as  a  powerful  instru- 
ment in  emjjire-building.  The  first  railroad  was  begun  in  1870; 
to-day  there  are  nearly  eight  thousand  miles  of  rail.  In  1872, 
military  service  became  univer.sal  and  obligatory.  A  constitution 
was  granted  in  1889,  and  Parliament  met  for  the  first  time  in 
1890." 

In  the  midst  of  this  process  'of  modernization,  Japan  con.soli- 
dated  her  island  possessions.  In  1875  she  got  the  Kurile  Islands, 
thus  rounding  out  her  domain  on  the  north.  In  e.vchango  she 
relinquished  her  claim  to  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  the  .southern 
half  of  which  was  again  recovered  in  1905;  the  northern  half  is 
occupied  at  the  present  time.  In  1876  she  seized  the  Liukiu 
Islands,  which  extend  southward  almost  to  Formosa.  In  1895 
as  a  result  of  her  war  with  China  she  won  Formosa,  the  richest  of 
her  island  prizes,  with  a  population  of  3,6."i0,000.     Iler  island 


empire  fringes  the  coast  of  Asia  for  3,000  miles.    As  per  popula- 
tion increased,  we  read : 

"The  merchants  of  Japan  turned  to  overseas  trade  and  her 
business  men  began  to  manufacture  articles  of  commerce.  At 
the  present  time  the  Japanese  trader  can  be  found  everywhere 
through  the  East  from  Sumatra  and  Singapore  up  through  the 
Philijipines  and  in  all  the  open  ports  of  the  coast  of  China.  Jap- 
anese banks  and  warehouses  sprang  up  in  India  during  the  World 
War,  and  Japanese  merchants  went  in  numbers  into  the  Ivlalay 
States,  buj-ing  u]5  rich  concessions.  Japan's  commerce  with  Siam 
doubled  during  the  war  and  in  the  same  period  she  increased  her 
trade  wth  the  Dutch  East  Indies  fivefold.  In  New  Zealand  the 
Japanese  have  won  over  the  former  trade  of  Germany  and  have 
taken  away  much  of  British  trade  also.  A  fleet  of  Japanese 
steamers  makes  regular  runs  to  Seattle  and  San  Francisco  and 
another  fleet  plies  between  Japan  and  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  Japanese  trade  expansion  on  a  huge  scale  in  southern 
Asia,  in  Far  East,  and  the  Pacific,  is  one  of  the  really  marvel- 
ous economic  consequences  of  the  World  War." 

Australia,  tho  so  predominantly  the  greatest  land  mass  in 
this  region,  is  habitable  by  white  races  only  on  its  borders  and 
in  a  few  interior  districts  of  the  South  and  West.  Its  total  esti- 
mated population,  in  1919,  was  6,247,019.  Recently,  however, 
reports  Current  History  (New  York) : 

"Sir  James  Connelly,  agent  in  London  for  Western  Australia, 
announces  that  for  the  next  two  years  a  thousand  emigrants 
from  the  British  Isles  will  be  sent  to  Australia  each  month. 
The  first  large  party,  comprising  1,100  emigrants,  left  Great 
Britain  early  in  January." 

The  continent  is  of  practically  the  same  area  as  the  United 
States,  containing  2,974,.581  square  miles.  Up  to  the  year  1918, 
says  "The  Statesman's  Year  Book,"  only  5.63  per  cent,  of  the 
land  had  passed  into  private  ownership.  Sheep  raising  and 
agriculture  are  the  chief  industries.  "In  Australia,  the  chief 
problem  is  to  keep  out  the  Malays,  the  natives  of  India,  the 
Chinese,  and  the  Japanese,"  says  Mr.  Bowman,  in  his  chapter 
on  "The  Pacific  Realm  and  Australia."  As  for  the  physical 
problem  confronting  the  continent,  he  writes: 

"The  eastern  portion  is  mountainous,  and  receives  rainfall 
from  the  southeastern  trade  winds.  All  the  rest  of  the  country 
is  desert,  save  for  a  small  district  in  the  southwestern  corner 
which  has  winter  rains  sufficient  to  give  it  better  resources,  and  a 
strip  on  the  north  coast  which  falls  within  the  limits  of  the  equa- 
torial rains  during  the  southern  summer. 

"The  population  is  disposed  in  a  manner  to  correspond  with 
the  rain  belts.  Nearly  half  is  uninhabited.  Only  one  per  cent, 
of  the  total  area  is  under  cultivation." 

The  Australian  commonwealth,  which  came  into  existence  in 
1901 ,  permits  the  separate  states  much  larger  rights,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  rights  of  the  central  government,  than  is  the  case 
in  the  United  States.  The  Labor  Party  is,  and  has  been  for  some 
time,  in  practical  control  of  the  government.  Immigration  by 
Chinese,  Japanese  and  Indian  groups  is  especially  opposed  by  the 
labor  unions.  The  new  Australian  mandate  covers  all  the  for- 
merly German  islands  south  of  the  equator,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Samoan  group,  allotted  to  New  Zealand.  Tho  two  largest 
islands  of  the  group,  formerly  known  as  the  Bismarck  Archipel- 
ago, have  recently  been  renamed  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland. 

New  Zealand, founded  in  great  parts  by  the  younger  sons  of  the 
British  aristocracy,  has  in  recent  years  gained  a  reputation  as  one 
of  the  most  carefully  governed  territories  in  tho  world.  Tho  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  by  "The  Statesman's  Year  Book"  at  1,139,- 
014,  e.xchisive  of  some  .')(),()00  natives  Maoris.  The  total  area  is 
103,.581  square  miles.  This  docs  not  include  the  Dominion's  new 
mandate  over  the  former  German  Samoan  Islands,  now  tho 
Territory  of  Western  Samoa,  which  adds  an  anui  of  1,200  square 
miles. 


86 


37 


The  New-Old  ''Land  of  Promise"  in  Palestine 


A  MODERN  HEBRAIC  EXODUS  has  taken  place  into 
"what  has  become  once  more  the  Land  of  Promise,"  in 
the  phrase  of  The  American  Israelite,  and  the  result  of 
the  fij'st  tliree  years  of  the  changed  regime,  reports  PatrieJi 
Geddes  in  The  Contemporary  Review  (London),  has  been  the 
beginning  of  a  real  "renewal "  of  the  country.  The  publication  of 
the  Palestine  mandate,  under  which  the  British  Government  wOI 
administer  the  country,  was  followed  by  an  official  declaration 
that  England  "views  with  favor  the  establishment  in  Palestine 
of  a  national  home  for  the  Jewish  people."  Jews  all  over  the 
world  are  organizing  and  collecting  funds,  with  the  immediate 
object  of  caring  for  the  Jewish  immigrants  already  in  the 
country.  As  an  ultimate  goal,  many  of  them  look  forward  to 
a  return  of  national  power  and 
unity  in  a  free  nation  controlled 
by  the  descendants  of  its  ancient 
inhabitants.  Whether  this  "dream 
empire"  is  realized  or  not,  the 
New  York  Times  sums  up  the 
present  situation  correctly,  says 
The  American  Israelite,  and  quotes 
with  approval: 

"The  mandatary  will  control  the 
foreign  relations  of  Palestine  and 
protect  diplomatically  Palestinians 
abroad.  The  mandatary  also  will 
impose  taxes  and  customs  and  will 
report  annually  to  the  League  of 
Nations.  The  phrase  'a  national 
home  for  the  Jewish  people'  is  fre- 
quently employed.  The  League,  it 
is  e\  ident,  has  not  set  up  a  Jewish 
state  or  nation  in  Palestine.  The 
effect  of  the  mandate  is  to  create  a 
national  home  or  refuge  for  Jews 
who,  because  of  oppression  or  perse- 
cution in  any  other  land,  may  desire 
to  seek  shelter  there." 

A  multitude  of  small  differences 
have  appeared  among  the  individ- 
uals and  associations  charged 
with  rebuilding  Palestine,  much  in 
the  manner  of  the  difficulties  that 
arose  as  soon  as  the  world  had 
been  "made  safe  for  democracy," 
but  the  essential  fact,  announces 
The  American  Hebrew,  is  that 
"Palestine  will  be  rebuilt."  The 
rebuilding  will  be  accomplished,  be- 
lieves this  authority,  "by  plans 
and  methods  of  the  American- 
Palestine  Company,  of  New  York." 
To  carry  out  the  work  of  reconstruction,  the  editor  continues: 

"In  every  great  city  throughout  the  country  Jews  wiU  or- 
ganize such  companies,  each  to  pursue  the  do\'elopnient  of 
particularized  constructive  work  in  Palestine.  In  time,  a  super- 
organization  compo.sed  of  all  these  individual  companies,  and 
governed  by  a  hoard  of  directors  t-hat  will  represent  all  of  them, 
for  the  coordination  and  the  systematic  development  of  the 
undertaking  of  each  without  overlapping,  will  eventually  create 
that  Jewisli  organization  in  which  all  Jews  will  be  enrolled  and 
which  will  rebuild  Palestine." 

The  new  mandate,  according  to  estimates  presented  by  "The 
Statesman's  Year-Book, "  is  13,724  square  miles  in  area,  with  a 
total  population  of  67.5,000.  In  Biblical  times  the  population 
rose  to  between  five  and  si.x  millions.  By  a  strange  turn  of 
events  the  Philistines,  those  ancient  enemies  of  the  C'liildrcn  of 
Israel,  have  succeeded  in  giving  their  name  to  the  whole  of  the 


THE   B1I3L.CAL   "KINGDOM   OF   D.WID." 

The  liounfiaricj^  of  the  Hebrew  nation  at  its  greatest  ex- 
lent  are  thus  dc dned   by   MacCoim's   Bible   Atlas  (Poates, 
New    York).     The    now    British    mandate    of    Palestine  is 
shown  by  tlie  liea\y  dotted  line. 


country,  for  "Palestine,"  as  a  historical  geographer  observes, 
is  directly  derived  from  "Philistine."  The  territory  "has  never 
belonged  to  one  nation,  and  probably  never  will,"  this  wrier, 
G.  A.  .Smith,  continued  in  his  "Historical  Geography  of  the 
Holy  Land"  (London),  wTitten  shortly  before  the  war  came  to 
upset  a  number  of  preconceived  notions  along  with  territorial 
boundaries.  Near  the  beginning  of  historical  times,  it  "lay  at 
the  gate  of  Arabia  and  Egypt  and  at  the  tad-end  of  a  number  of 
small  states  stretching  up  into  Asia  Minor."  A  period  of  Greek 
influence  was  followed  by  Roman  conquest.  After  the  success 
of  the  First  Crusade,  it  was  ruled  for  almost  a  hundred  years  by 
European  princes.  In  spite  of  these  various  waves  of  immi- 
grants  and   conquerors,    "the   essential    characteristics   of   the 

Jewish  people  persisted,"  as  a 
writer  in  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
lannica  points  out,  together  with 
the  idealism  and  high  moraMty  of 
their  religion. 

One  of  the  difficulties  faced  by 
the  modern  state  is  the  fact  that 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
present  population  is  Jewish. 
Thus,  in  the  9,000  square  miles 
included  in  that  part  of  Palestine 
west  of  the  Jordan,  "The  States- 
man's Year-Book"  states  that  there 
were  in  1919,  515,000  Moslems, 
65,300  Jews,  62,.500  Christians,  1-50 
Samaritans,  and  4,900  others. 
"The  feeling  between  Mos'.em, 
Christian  and  Jew  is  perhaps  more 
intense,"  adds  Dr.  Albert  E.  Clay, 
professor  of  AssjTiology  and  Baby- 
lonian History  in  Yale  University, 
writing  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly, 
"than  in  any  other  land." 

Fighting  has  occurred  between 
Jews  and  Arabs,  notably  at  Jaffa, 
"where  recently  many  persons  were 
killed  or  wounded,"  according  to  a 
dispatch  received  in  this  country 
in  May,  1921.  Bedouins  have  at- 
tacked Israelite  colonists,  say  later 
dispatches,  and  British  troops  have 
been  called  in  to  preserve  order. 
The  present  British  High  Commis- 
sioner, Sir  Herbert  Samuel,  lately 
made  a  tour  of  the  towns  east  of 
the  Jordan  in  an  attempt  to  pacify 
the  Bedouins. 
Winston  Churchill,  the  British  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Colonies,  said,  in  a  recent  address  in  Jerusalem: 

"Examine  Mr.  Balfour's  careful  words:  Palestine  to  be 
'a  national  home,'  not  'the  national  home,'  a  great  differ- 
ence in  meaning.  The  est.ablislimeut  of  a  national  home  does 
not  mean  a  Jewish  Go\'erninent  to  dominato  the  Arabs.  Great 
Britain  is  the  greatest  Mo.selin  .Slate  in  the  world,  and  is  well- 
disposed  to  the  Arabs,  and  chorisiies  their  friendship.  1  found 
since  my  arrival  that  the  ministrations  of  the  officials  make  no 
distinction  between  Jew  and  Arab. 

"Above  all;  there  will  be  respect  for  the  different  religions. 
Tho  the  Arabs  are  in  a  largo  majority  in  I'alestine,  tho  the 
British  lOmpire  has  accepted  the  mandate  in  tlie  wider  sense, 
Palestine  belongs  to  the  whole  world,  and  this  city  of  Jerustilern 
is  almost  equally  sacred  to  Moslems,  Christians  and  Jews,  and 
not  only  to  tlie  dwellers  in  Palestine,  but  everywhere.  Instead 
of  sliaring  miseries  tliroiigh  quarreling,  tho  Palostimaus  should 
sliaro  blessings  thi'ough  cool>oration." 


PREbENT  BOUNDARY 


GENERAL    DffAFTING  CO.  INC  . 


3S 


34^ 

MAP  OF 

PALESTINE 

(BRITISH  MANDATE) 

Railr-oads ...     ,Mt-iw»^ 

Principal  Highways  mostly  lat  Class  IIoaHH  —        — 

2nd  Class  Roads -  - - 

Trails 

Limits  of  Palestine.  ^^^ ■  ■  •  ■■KOBa 

Limits  of  Palestine,  tentative IB  1M  H 

Lands  below  Sea  Level ^^^^^^ 

Scale  of  Miles 

0  m  20  80  40  60 

1'^iiomei.erd 

9        10       ^0       ap       40      60 

COPYRIGHT.   1921,  BY  FUNK  &  WAGNALL8  CO.  NEW  VOBK 
THE  MATTHE  A'i-MORTHRUP  WORKS,   BUFFALO,  N>  Y» 


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39 


The  European  Advance  in  Asia 


HUGE  ASIA'S  SUBSERVIENCE  to  smaller  but  more 
aggressive  Europe  has  been  increased,  territorially  at 
least,  by  the  settlements  following  the  war.  Mesopo- 
tamia, SjTia  and  Palestine  have  been  added  to  the  vast  extent 
of  Asiatic  territory  already  under  the  control  of  Western  Powers. 
This  gain  is  slightly  counterbalanced  by  the  German  Asiatic 
territory  taken  ever  by  .lapan,  the  first  Asiatic  Power  in  cen- 
turies to  take  rank  with  the  nations  of  the  Atlantic  and  Medi- 
terranean. Europe  now  controls  Asiatic  territory  somewhat 
greater  in  population,  and  far  greater  in  extent,  than  the  whole 
of  Europe,  but  many  observers  find  a  loosening  of  political  and 
military  bonds  which  ultimately,  they  argue,  will  result  in  the 
rise  of  sovereign  autochthonous  nationalities. 

Of  Asia's  total  area,  given  as  17,206,000  square  miles  in  the 
World  Almanac  for  1921,  or  16,819,000  in  the  latest  edition  of 
the  "Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  approximately  10,000,000 
square  miles  are  under  the  control  of  Russia,  Great  Britain, 
Holland,  France  and  the  United  States.  The  following  table, 
prepared  in  1910  for  the  "Encyclopedia  Britannica,"  shows  the 
distribution  of  Asiatic  territory  at  that  time: 

Territory  Square  Miles 

Russian 6,49.5,970 

British 1,998,220 

Dutch 586,980 

French 247,580 

U.  S.  A 114,370 

German 1 93 

Turkish 681,980 

Chinese 4,299,600 

Japanese 161,110 

Other  independent  territories 2,232,270 

The  changes  shown  on  the  accompanying  map  include  an  in- 
crease of  rather  more  than  100,000  square  miles  in  the  holdings 
of  both  England  and  France,  small  mandates  to  Italy  and  Greece, 
the  increase  of  the  Japanese  area  to  260,738  square  miles,  the 
wiping  out  of  the  small  German  possessions,  and  the  decrease  of 
the  Turkish  total  to  438,750  square  miles.  Of  the  total  Asiatic 
population,  estimated  in  1920  at  872,.522.000,  approximately 
345,000,000  inhabit  Chinese  territory,  325;000,000  British,  and 
25,000,000  Russian. 

"The  purely  arbitrary  borderline,  which  is  supposed  to  sep- 
arate the  Continent  of  Europe  from  the  Continent  of  Asia," 
writes  H.  M.  Hyndman,  the  British  publicist,  in  his  recent  ex- 
tended study  of  Asia  as  ailected  by  the  war  ("The  Awakening 
of  Asia,"  by  H.  M.  Hyndman,  Boni  &  Liveright),  "at  times 
leads  to  the  misapprehension  that  there  really  is  such  a  break  in 
territorial  continuity."  There  is,  of  course,  no  recognized  divi- 
sion between  the  two  continents,  either  in  the  matter  of  geog- 
raphy or  of  race,  he  points  out.  Europe,  in  fact,  he  writes,  is 
"a  great  conterminous  colony  of  Asia,  which,  in  the  course  of 
thousands  of  years,  has  set  up  for  itself."  As  for  the  mutual 
reaction  between  the  two  countries,  he  finds  that: 

"We  arc  inclined  nowadays  to  take  more  account  of  tlio 
European  invasion  of  Asia  than  of  the  Asian  invasion  of  Europe. 
Yet  the  influence  of  the  East  upon  the  West  and  the  far  less 
powerful  influence  of  the  West  upon  the  East  have  been  going 
on  for  many,  many  centuries.  The  successive  waves  of  invasion 
and  counter-invasion  from  Europe  to  Asia  and  from  Asia  to 
Kuriipe  are  not  easy  to  record  accurately  and  intelligibly.  Some 
of  the  Asiatic  attacks  upon  Europe  were  no  better  than  mere  tem- 
porary raids  givuig  no  permanent  results,  and  the  same  may  bo 
said  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  European  advances  upon  Asia. 
At  some  periods  botli  attacks  wore  going  on  simultaneously,  and 
the  direct  military  influence  of  Asia  upon  Europe  has  been  nuich 
more  recent  and  more  pov.erful  than  we  generally  recognize. 
Even  in  the  Great  War,  wiiile  tens  of  thousands  of  Asiatic  Turks 
wer(^  fighting  on  the  side  of  German.v,  Japan  threw  in  her  lot  with 
the  Allies  and  has  been  fighti'ng  on  their  side  against  Germans  in 
the  East,  while  largo  forci^s  from  India  have  been  engaged  with  the 
enemy  in  the  West.   -But,  \n  any  survey  of  the  inutunl  aggressions 


from  one  side  or  other,  there  is  nothing  in  the  European  attempts 
upon  Asia,  ur  t.il  the  period  from  the  six  teenth  to  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, which  can  be  compared  for  vigor,  continuity,  and  effect  to  the 
pressm-e  exerted  for  a  far  longer  period  by  Asiatics  upon  Europe." 

-  There  have  been  four  great  European  invasions  of  Asia  within 
historic  times.  As  classified  by  Mr.  Hyndman,  the  first  is  that 
famous  campaign  of  Alexander  of  Macedon  and  his  Greek  armies. 
Then  came  the  Roman  invasion,  which  lasted  for  many  cen- 
turies. The  Middle  Ages  brought  the  invasion  by  the  Crusaders, 
whom  Mr.  Hyndman  calls  "freebooters  of  Christianity  and 
marauders  of  feudalism."  The  fourth  European  invasion  of  Asia 
has  taken  place  in  modern  times,  he  observes,  and  comments: 

"  It  is  a  much  wider,  more  continuous  and  far  more  formidable 
assault  than  any  of  its  predecessors.  This  great  movement  is  still 
in  progress,  and  we  are  by  no  means  as  yet  in  a  position  to  judge 
of  its  final  effect.  French,  English  and  Russians,  following  upon 
the  early  religious  and  commerical  efforts  of  the  Portuguese  and 
Dutch,  have  carried  on  for  three  centuries  a  steady  pressure  of 
first,  religious  propaganda,  then  mercantile  persuasion,  and 
lastly  armed  conquest  at  the  expense  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
result  is  that  Europeans  have  now  seized  and  dominate  more  than 
half  of  the  area  and  little  less  than  half  of  the  population  of  the 
great  Eastern  Continent,  with  its  adjacent  islands.  The  fact  that 
the  country  we  speak  of  as  Russia  in  Europe,  which  suffered  most 
in  old  times  from  the  inroads  of  barbarous  hordes  from  Central 
Asia,  to-day  holds  sway  over  the  territories  whence  these  tribes 
swept  in  succession  to  the  West  on  their  missions  of  massacre,  is  a 
strange  instance  of  historic  revenge  for  the  horrors  of  the  past." 

The  immense  conquest  of  Siberia,  started  near  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  through  Russian  support  of  freebooters  and 
traders,  was  completed  by  1860.  England  in  India  extended  her 
rule  through  the  Bast  India  Company.  The  United  States,  with 
its  present  control  of  114,370  square  miles  of  Asiatic  territory, 
fell  heir  to  the  ancient  Spanish  conquests.  Most  of  Asia  that  is 
worth  exploiting  has  come  under  control  of  most  of  Europe. 

In  spite  of  widening  spheres  of  European  influence  in  the  East, 
howe^•er,  Europe's  hold  on  Asia  is  loosening,  maintains  Mr. 
Hyndman.  Asia,  he  declares,  "is  already  far  from  being  the 
Asia  which  was  fau-  game  for  adventurous  European  experi- 
ments," and  he  predicts  that  the  time  will  soon  come  when,  un- 
less the  Allied  nations  apply  to  Asiatics,  "the  principles  for 
which  they  justly  claim  they  fought  Germany,"  history  may 
record  a  return  of  the  predominating  pressure  of  Asia  on  Europe. 
H.  G.  Wells,  the  novelist,  historian,  and  publicist,  strongly 
agreeing  in  this  view  with  Mr.  Hyndman.  inveighs  in  his  "Out- 
line of  History,"  against  persons  who  believe  that  "  the  vast  popu- 
lations of  eastern  Asia  can  be  permanently  subordinated  to 
Europe."     He  writes: 

"They  do  not  realize  that  in  Asia  the  average  brain  is  not 
one  whit  inferior  in  quality  to  the  average  European  brain;  that 
history  shows  Asiatics  to  bo  as  bold,  as  vigorous,  as  generous, 
as  self-sacrificing,  and  as  capable  of  strong  collective  action  as 
Europeans,  and  that  there  are  and  must  continue  to  bo  a  great 
many  more  Asiatics  than  Europeans  in  the  world.  Undej 
modern  conditions  world-wide  economic  and  educatioual  equali- 
zation is  in  the  long  run  inevitable." 

Air  transport  may  already  be  opening  the  way  to  a  still  more 
extensive  and  universal  "Pax,"  suggests  Mr.  Wells,  in  which  the 
British  system  "may  of  its  own  accord  merge,"  and  he  adds  that 
"it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  this  unprecedented  imperialism 
will  obstruct  or  help  forward  that  final  unification  of  the  world's 
affairs  towards  which  all  history  is  pointed."  He  feels  that  "it 
is  open  to  question  whether  the  British  rule  in  India  does  not 
compare  favorably  with  any  other  domination  of  one  entirely 
remote  and  alien  civilization  by  anollu'r,"  and  he  concludes: 

"What  is  wrong  is  not  so  much  that  Britain  rules  India  and 
Egypt,  but  that  any  ci\'ilized  counlr.v  should  bo  ruled  by  the 
legislature  of  another,  and  that  tlu^ro  should  be  no  impartial 
court  of  app(\al  in  the  world  yet  to  readjust  this  arrangement." 


40 


2 

i 

Jf 

1 

•a 


41 


The  New  Partition  of  Africa 


GERISIANY'S  VAST  HOLDINGS  IN  AFRICA  have 
fallen,  under  mandates,  to  the  two  strongest  nations  of 
the  ^^cto^ious  Allies.  Southwest  Africa,  formerly  Ger- 
man Southwest  Africa,  a  huge,  thinly  populated  district  of 
322,250  square  miles,  goes  to  the  British  dependency,  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  and  the  other  territories,  a  total  of  some  608,000 
square  miles,  with  an  estimated  population  of  13,335,000  in 
1913,  according  to  "The  Statesman's  Year-Book"  for  that  year, 
are  allocated  directly  to  England  and  France.  Germany,  the 
last  of  the  European  Powers  to  acquire  African  territory  when  it 
was  being  parceled  out  among  the  nations  of  Europe,  is  the  fh-st 
to  be  forced  out  of  the  continent,  with  England  as  her  chief 
inheritor.  Numerous  British  authorities  have  alleged,  in  the 
last  twenty  years  of  Germany's  penetration  in  Africa,  that  her 
interest  lay  not  so  much  in  obtaining  comnieroial  and  colonial 
advantages  as  in  establishing  military  "stepping-stones"  on  the 
way  to  India.  According  to  figures  collected  in  1911,  the  total 
imports  from  the  German  colonies  into  Germany  amounted  to 
only  about  §10,000,000  in  that  year,  with  exports  of  a  few  mil- 
lions more,  a  decrease  of  a  million  and  a  half  dollars  in  imports 
from  the  preceding  year.  "One  of  the  little-known  results  of 
the  World  War,"  a  writer  in  Current  History  points  out,  is  the 
American  commercial  penetration  in  Africa.  Even  tho  this 
country  controls  no  territory,  our  commercial  hold  is  shown  by 
the  growth  of  trade,  amounting  to  .$47,000,000  in  1914  and  to 
S325,000,000  in  1920.    The  WTiter  explains: 

"With  the  opening  of  the  war,  German  trade  was  absolutely 
cut  off  and  British  and  French  manufacturers  were  too  busily 
occupied  with  supplying  government  needs  to  give  close  attention 
to  African  markets.  In  South  Africa  alone  American  imports, 
which  in  1914  were  .§25,000,000,  reached  S.54,000,000  in  1916, 
$98,000,000  by  1919,  and  $165,000,000  in  1920." 

A  comparison  of  the  map  of  Africa  in  1800  with  that  of  1914 
"contains  both  the  history  of  its  extended  exploration  and  the 
elaborate  process,  comprest  mainly  into  the  period  from  1800 
to  1914,  by  which  the  vast  continent  has  been  parceled  out" 
between  European  states.  "A  map  of  Africa  of  1800,"  the 
authority  quoted  ("An  Historical  Atlas  of  Modern  Europe  from 
1789  to  1914,"  by  C.  Grant  Robertson  and  J.  G.  Bartholomew, 
0,xford  University  Press,  London),  goes  on — 

"represents  a  fringe  of  Eiiropean  settlements  and  trading  sta- 
tions: French,  Dutch,  and  British  at  Senegal  and  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  Portuguese  from  Calabar  to  Cape  Negro,  Dutch  and 
Briti.sh  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  Natal,  Portuguese 
along  the  Mozambique  channel  and  from  Cape  Delgado  to  the 
Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  unoccupied  liy  any  European  power 
even  on  tlie  coast  fringes,  wliile  the  remaining  nine-tenths  of  the 
interior  form  a  vast  area,  unlcnown,  unexplored,  and  represented 
by  a  significanl  blank  or  dotted  with  hypothetical  names." 

The  discovery  of  the  source  and  character  of  the  four  great 
rivers,  the  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Kongo  and  the  Zambesi,  "made 
the  continent  ripe  for  distribution  under  tho  competitive  pressure 
of  an  expanding  Europe,  the  major  states  of  which  were  seeking 
for  areas  of  commercial  iniijortanco  or  for  strategical  positions 
to  strengthen  dominions  or  territories  acquired  elsewhere." 
The  authorities  quoted  justify  the  partition  of  the  wild  and  un- 
developed country  on  the  general_ ground  that — 

"Between  'commercial  penetration'  and  political  control  there 
is  no  Batisfatftory  half-way  stage,  and  indirect  political  control 
by  an  irresi)onsibIe  financial  or  commercial  sjaidicatc  or  com- 
pany is  far  more  dangerous  and  harmful  than  the  direct  political 
control  of  a  slate,  responsible  for  its  actions,  whoso  contracts  can 
bo  made  a  part  of  the  public  law,  in  tho  maintenance  of  which 
all  civili/.ed  communities  have  an  interest.  .  .  .  Tho  i)erfectibili(y 
of  mankind  may  be  an  iwademic  siijM'r.stition  or  a  philo.sophic 
chimera,  but  experience  has  shown  that  as  a  working  hyi)othesis 
of  government,  particulai'ly  in  the  relations  of  the  white  to  sub- 
ject riKu.s,  it  can  a<fhiove  remarkable  results  both  for  tho  govern- 
ors and  the  govcrngd." 


"We  gain  some  idea  of  the  pos.sible  benefits  of  colonial  develop- 
ment by  looking  at  what  France  has  already  accomplished  in 
Northern  Africa,"  writes  Isaiah  Bowman,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the 
American  Geographical  Society  of  New  York,  in  a  recent  volume, 
"The  New  World:  Problems  in  Political  Geography"  (World 
Book  Company).  The  farms  that  the  Romans  made  with  such 
care  in  a  long-passed  historical  era  had  vanished  into  waste 
land,  he  observes, but  the  French  engineers  were  not  discouraged: 

"They  immediately  set  to  work  to  reclaim  them  bj'  making 
hunch'eds  of  artesian  wells,  by  damming  up  the  streams  that  had 
been  allowed  to  waste  their  precious  waters  in  the  sand,  by  fight- 
ing the  swarms  of  locusts.  Lion,  hyena,  and  leopard  had  ravaged 
the  flocks  and  herds;  the  French  set  to  work  to  exterminate  them 
in  the  neighborhood  of  settlements.  They  built  several  thousands 
of  miles  of  roads  and  constructed  hundreds  of  miles  of  railways. 
The  fine  cedars  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  were  in  the  way  of  extinc- 
tion, and  the  French  forest  ser\'iee  came  just  in  time  to  save  them. 
By  many  different  means  France  has  placed  under  cultivation 
at  least  100,000  square  miles  of  land  (or  about  twice  the  area  of 
Colorado  or  Alabama)  that  was  formerly  desert  waste." 

Best  of  all,  says  this  writer,  France  has  done  these  things  with 
little  disturbance  to  native  political  and  social  organizations;  she 
has  taken  no  land  away  from  native  holders;  she  has  put  money 
and  effort  into  the  improvement  of  the  life  of  the  people.  Her 
work,  we  are  told,  "has  extended  into  Madagascar,  where  the 
Hovas,  a  tyrannical  Malayo-Polynesian  people  who  settled  in 
the  island  in  the  sixteenth  century,  had  long  practised  slavery, 
thus  depopulating  large  tracts  in  the  south  and  southwest." 
England's  far  more  extensive  colonization  includes  the  pictur- 
esque career  of  Cecil  Rhodes,  "the  man  who  thought  in  conti- 
nents," in  South  Africa.  By  some  regarded  as  a  man  of  money, 
"actuated  entu-ely  by  selfish  motives,"  says  a  writer  in  the  New 
International  Encyclopedia,  "his  will,  by  which  he  left  almost  his 
entire  fortune  for  the  purpose  of  educating  Anglo-Saxon  youth  to 
the  idea  of  Empire,  radically  modified  previous  estimates  of  his 
character." 

The  Negro  Republic  of  Liberia,  situated  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  between  Sierra  Leone  (British)  and  the  Ivory  Coast 
(French),  we  are  reminded,  is  of  especial  interest  to  Americans. 
To  quote  IMr.  Bow^nan's  brief  description  of  it,  and  its  connection 
with  the  United  States: 

"Its  total  area  is  about  40,000  square  miles  (a  little  less  than 
that  of  Pennsylvania)  and  the  population  has  been  variously 
estimated,  the  figures  ranging  from  700,000  to  about  2,000,000,  of 
whom  all  but  about  50,000  on  the  coast  are  quite  uncivilized. 
Liberians  of  American  origin  number  some  12,000. 

"The  foundation  of  the  republic  was  the  result  of  efforts  made 
by  the  American  Colonization  Society,  founded  in  1816  to  settle 
free  American  negroes  on  African  .soil.  In  1820  actual  settlement 
began,  and  in  1847  the  colonists  promtdgated  a  declaration  of 
independence  and  drew  up  a  constitution.  Even  to-day  the 
government  does  not  effectively  control  the  interior  regions,  and 
tills  has  led  to  the  progressive  diminution  of  Liberia's  territory  by 
Fn^nch  encroachment.  Should  this  or  similixr  absorption  by 
Europeans  thi-eaten  Liberia  with  real  danger  of  extinction,  tho 
United  States  would  doubtless  play  a  giuu'dian's  j)art. 

"The  poUtical  inlluence  of  tho  United  States  has  been  carried 
directly  into  Africa  by  treaty  with  Liberia,  so  that  the  United 
States  has  now  assumed  obligations  tluit  cover  a  stretch  of  15,000 
miles,  or  tlire(i-fifths  of  tho  circumference  of  tho  earth  from 
Liberia  to  the  Pliili])pines.  The  United  States  loaned  Liberia 
.1i;5,0(W,0(XJ  in  1918  for  the  construction  of  roads,  etc.,  and  has  as- 
sumed the  position  of  chief  financial  adviser  to  the  republic,  a 
position  which  was  previousfy  lield  by  a  joint  commission  of 
representatives  of  tJreat  Britain,  the  United  States  and  (iermanj'. 

"The  development  of  the  resoui-ces  of  the  region  is  hindered 
somewhat  by  the  constitutional  i)rovision  that  none  but  Liberian 
citizens  may  hold  i-eal  estate,  except  for  colonization,  missionary, 
educational,  or  other  benevolent,  puri)oses.  The  present  head  of 
the  government  of  Lilieria  holds  broader  views  of  the  country's 
future  than  his  ))redecessors  held,  ahd  is  se(diing  to  provule  bolter 
commercial  oi]porlniiities  for  whites,  upon  whom  the  economic 
progress  of  the  country  must  depend." 


42 


43 


r=FREE  YOUR 


Give    it    that     determining    and    controlling    force  joyous    readers    have    reaped    a  bounteous    harvest  of 

which    is    so    vital    to     self-culture,     health,    greater  the  good  things  of  life  from  the  seeds  of  self  realiza- 

achievement,    and    success.       Take   fullest    advantage  tion    which    these    volumes    hereafter   described   have 

of   the   great    truths    which    eminent    modern    prac-  given   to  them.      Who  can  foretell  the  extent  ol   the 

tical   psychologists   and   inspirational  writers    have    so  beneficial    effects  on  your  lile  that  even  one  of  these 

clearly   expounded   for    your    benefit.      Thousands    of  volumes  may  have? 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE  WILL 

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HOW  FAR  DOES  THE  MIND 
INFLUENCE  THE  BODY? 

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THE  PSYCHIC  TREATMENT  OF  NERV- 
OUS DISORDERS.  Translated  by  Smith  Ely 
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NERVOUS  STATES— THEIR  NATURE  AND 
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THE  EDUCATION  OF  SELF.  Translated 
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THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MIND  ON  THE 
BODY.  Translatcdby  L.B.Gallatin.  An  intimate 
and  clearly  exprest  talk  on  this  much  discussed 
subject  that  every  physician,  nurse,  or  layman  who 
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IN  THE  SUNLIGHT  OF  HEALTH 

A  wonderfully  optimistic  book  by  CHARLES 
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THE  WILL  TO  BE  WELL 

An  exposition  of  the  relation  between  health  and 
the  mind,  by  CHARLES  BRODIE  PATTERSON. 
The  authority  of  law,  claims  the  author,  is  resident 
in  man's  life.  It  is  the  attitude  of  his  will  that 
decides  his  physical,  mental,  and  moral  health. 
Here  are  given  the  principles  of  controlling  life  and 
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HOW  TO   BUILD  MENTAL  POWER 

By  GRENVILLE  KLEISER.  is  a  new  and  different 
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covered:  Crystallizing  Desire  Into  Will.  Seven 
Cardinal  Rules  for  Clear  Thinking.  How  to  Con 
centrate  on  a  Chosen  Thought.  How  to  Prevent 
Mind  Wandering.  How  to  Get  Ideals  and  Inspira- 
tion. How  to  Distinguish  Between  Truth  and 
Error.  Gaining  Accurate,  Infallible  Judgment. 
Cultivating  Power  of  Observation.  Developing 
Imagination — Intuition — Breadth  of  Mind.  How 
to  Cultivate  Persistence.  How  to  Systematize 
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How  to  Analyze  a  Proposition  and  Test  Its  Value. 
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Kansas.  BISHOP  FALLOWS.  RUSSELL  H. 
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THE  UNCONSCIOUS  MIND 

A  brilliant  study  of  this  tremendously  important 
factor  in  your  Hfeby  Alfred  T.  Schofield,  M.D.. 
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THE  FORCE  OF  MIND 

or  The  Mental  Factor  in  Medicine,  by  DR.  AL- 
FRED T.  SCHOFIELD.  An  able  exposition  of 
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THE  SPRINGS  OF  CHARACTER 

A  study  of  the  sources  and  qualities  that  go  to  the 
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in  which  you  are  shown  the  transcendent  impor- 
tance of  the  formation  of  the  right  habits  and  of  a 
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is  not  minimized,  the  physical  is  given  its  fair  share 
in  the  process. 

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PERSONAL  POWER 

A  straight-from-thc-shouUlcr.  practical,  thor- 
ough-going book  by  KEITH  J.  THOMAS,  that 
gives  you  simple  directions  for  acquiring  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  basic  impulses  that  move  men  to  action 
and  shows  you  how  to  employ  this  knowledge  to 
advance  yourself  in  any  profession  or  business. 
The  author  is  an  experienced  man  of  affairs  and  he 
writes  with  a  direct  inspimtional  force  that  will 
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gripon  life  that  means  victory.  He  stirs  your  latent 
energies  to  action,  tells  you  how  to  direct  them  to 
produce  results,  and  meets  your  needs  fairly  and 
squarely. 

Andrew  Carnegie  said  of  this  book:  "It  has  been 
written  by  one  who  knows.  Every  young  man 
should  read  and  study  it.  because  it  points  the  way 
to  success  and  honor  in  life.'.'  $i-75  net;  by  mail, 
$i.S7. 


FUNK    & 

354-360  Fourth  Avenue 


WAGNALLS    COMPANY, 


Publishers 

New  York,  N. 


44 


11  inches 
wide  by  15 
inches  deep 

Strong, 
handsome  half- 
leather  bindine, 
beautifully   em- 
bossed and  dec 
orated  in  gold. 

Some  of  the 
Painters  Included 


Famous  Paintings 

Reproduced  in  Colors 

In  Two  Large, 
Handsome  Volumes 

HIS   magnificent    work    contains    actual    color 

reproductions  of  the  world  famous  "Old  Masters" 

which  thousands  upon  thousands  of  Americans 

yearly  travel  all  over  Europe  to  see  and  study.    You 

no  longer  need  leave  your  own  home  to  see  these 

famous    masterpieces.      We    bring    them    to    your 

very  doorstep. 

Just  think  of  possessing  in  actual  colors  a  beau- 
tiful reproduction  of  the  Mona  Lisa — the  most 
famous  picture  in    the    world — -"The  Angelus" 
by  Francois  Alillet,  "The  Judgment  of  Paris" 
by  Rubens,  "Venus  and  Adonis"  by  the  great 
Titian,  Turner's   wonderful    Marine   Pictures, 
the  famous  portrait  of  King  Philip  of  Spain 
by  the  immortal  Velasquez,  and  nearly   lOO 
others  almost  equally  famous — the   choice 
of  the  entire  art  loving  world! 

It's  just  as  though  you  visited  the  Louvre 

and    Luxembourg    Galleries  in  Paris  —  the 

National,  Tate  and  Guildhall  in  London,  the 

Wallace  Collection,  and  many  others — yet  you  don't 

even  have  to  stir  from  your  chair.     And  instead  of  seeing 

the  pictures  once  and  then  hurriedly,  as  you  do  in  visiting  the 

galleries,  you  can  have  them  to  own  and  live  with  year  in  and  year  out. 

Over  $5,000,000  Worth   of  Paintings 


Archer 

Bompard 

Botticelli 

Bouveret 

Brett 

Brown 

Cazin 

Chaplin 

Clark 

Constable 

Coiot 

Correggio 

Crome 

Da  Vinci 

Detaille 

Duverger 

Fragonard 

Furse 

Gainsborough 

Gore 

Greuze 

Guthrie 

Hals 

Henner 

Holbein 

Holiday 

Hook 

Hunt 

Israels 

Landseer 

Latour 

Le  Brun 

Legros 


Leighton 

Lawrence 

Lucas 

Mauve 

Meissonier 

Millet 

Morland 

Murillo 

Peacock 

Rembrandt 

Reni 

Reynolds 

Riviere 

Romney 

Rossetti 

Rubens 

Sadler 

Sargent 

Stanley 

Steen 

Stone 

SwcUl 

Titian 

Troyon 

Tuke 

Turner 

Velasquez 

Walker 

Waller 

Watts 

Webster 

Whistler 

Zorn 


The  paintings  in  this  great  collection  are  those 
which  are  talked  of  and  discussed  by  intellectual  people 
everywhere — paintings  with  which  every  well-educated 
person  should  be  familiar.  They  represent  canvases 
valued  at  over  Five  Million  Dollars. 

There  could  be  no  more  elevating,  pleasurable  way 
to  spend  leisure  hours  than  in  studying  the  works  of 
these  masters — like  fine  books,  they  become  dear  old 
friends  in  whose  companionship  you  will  find  untold 
inspiration  and  happiness. 

This  is  true  whether  you  have  ever  seen  the  originals 
or  not.  If  you  have,  these  volumes  will  enable  you  to 
live  over  and  over  again  your  visits  to  the  great  galleries 
— if  you  have  not  seen  the  originals,  they  will  open  up 
an  entirely  new  field  of  almost  ecstatic  pleasure. 

And  the  children — don't  let  them  grow  up  without  the 
refining  influence  of  these  great  painters — give  them 
an  opportunity  to  learn  and  appreciate  the  real  and  the 
beautiful.  Art  is  as  much  of  a  requisite  to  a  liberal 
education  as  music — nay  more  so,  for  everyone  with 
eyesight  can  find  a  wonderful  satisfaction  in  art,  and 
not  everyone  has  an  ear  for  music. 

A  Real  Library  of  Art 

"Famous  Paintings"  is  more  than  a  mere  collection 
of  pictures.  It  is  published  in  co-operation  with  Cassell 
&  Company,  the  famous  London  publishers.  The  paint- 
ings are  reproduced  on  a  specially  prepared  canvas 
paper  which  perfectly  conveys  the  color  values  of  the 
original.  Each  one  is  mounted  by  hand  on  lieavy  white 
art  board,  which  can  easily  be  detached  for  framing, 
and  the  whole  is  handsomely  bound  in  two  large 
volumes — 11x15  inches.  The  introduction  is  by 
G.  K.  Chesterton,  and  each  picture  is  accompanied  by  a 
lucid  explanation  of  the  motif  of  the  painting  itself  and 
a  brief  sketch  of  the  life  of  the  artist. 

Vou  not  only  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  char- 
acter of  each  man's  work,  but  you  learn  the  chief  points  about 
the  artist's  life  and  habits,  so  that  you'll  be  able  to  talk  about 
them  with  authority.  It  is  a  comprehensive  reference  library 
ever  at  your  elbow.  You'll  be  proud  to  possess  such  beauti- 
ful volumes,  and  proud  to  show  them  to  your  friends. 


Enthusiastic  Comments  From  Ownei'M 

"'Famous  Paintings'  have  been  the  source  of  much 
pleasure  co  the  members  of  our  family  and  a  num- 
ber of  our  friends.     Am  very  proud  of  them." 

Hugh  Parks,  FrankUnsville,  N,  C. 

"  My  family  and  I  have  had  much  pleasure  in  view- 
ing the  splendid  paintings  represented  in  the  volumes. 
I  consider  the  set  of  great  educational  value  in  the 
right  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  in  art." 

H.  H.  Price.  D.D.,  Aurora,  Nebraska. 

"These  volumes  have  brought  to  me,  as  they  will  to 
anyone ,  many  happy  moments.  Their  educational  value 
in  the  highest  and  best  sense,  is  immense." 

S.  G.  Heiskell,  Former  Mayor  of  Knoxville.  Tenn. 

"Surely  these  volumes  are  e.xceptional,  as  well  for  the 
beauty  and  artistic  merit  of  subjects  selected  as  perfec- 
tion in  reproduction.  To  be  in  possession  of  such  a 
collection  of  rare  and  distinguished  paintmgs  so  faith- 
fully copied  in  beautiful  coloring  and  effects  is  a 
privilege."   (Mrs.)  Clara  B.  Whinnery,  Findlay.  O. 

Sent  For  Free  Inspection 

The  two  splendid  volumes  of  "Famous  Paintings"  will  be 
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back  within  five  days  and  your  money  %viu  r.e  instantly  re- 
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wish  to  pay  cash,  send  only  524.00.  But  you  must  act  at 
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copy  the  coupon  or  write  it  on  a  post-card  NOW. 


FREE    EXAMINATION    COUPON 
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■  Send  me,  on  approval,  carriage  charges  paid,  the  two  vol- 
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45 


How  to  Make  Yourself 

WORTH    MORE 

Through  y4pplied  Psychology 

ANOTHER  MAN  started  even  with  you  in  life,  no  richer,  no  more  talented,  no  more  ambitious.  But  in  the 
_/jL  years  that  have  passed  he  has  somehow  managed  to  move  far  ahead.  What  is  the  secret  of  it?  Why 
should  he,  apparently,  have  the  power  to  get  so  easily  the  things  he  wants  while  you  must  work  so  hard  for  all 
that  comes  to  you  t 

Another  woman,  madam,  no  more  able  than  yourself,  has  the  good  gifts  of  life  fairly  thrust  into  her  hands.    You 
have  compared  yourself  to  her  and  questioned  what  there  is  in  her  character  and  talents  that  you  somehow  lack. 


Learn  the  Reason  from 
Science 

Scientists  have  found  the  secret.  They  can  show  you  how  you,  too, 
can  obtain  the  better  things  of  life.  How  you  can  arouse  the  hidden 
powers  of  your  mind  and  make  them  bring  you  more  influence,  a 
larger  income,  greater  happiness. 

Human  intelligence  acts  and  reacts  according  to  certain  laws  known 
as  the  Laws  of  Psychology — "organized  common  sense."  Either  by 
instinct  or  by  study  some  individuals  master  these  laws.  To  them 
the  minds  of  their  associates  become  like  fine  instruments  on  which 
they  can  play  at  will.  They  have  but  to  set  the  train  of  circumstances 
moving  and  await  results.    In  other  words — they  apply  Psychology. 

No  Longer  the  Dream 
of   Theorists 

To-day  we  see  Psychology  studied  by  the  business  man  and  its 
principles  applied  to  the  management  of  factory  and  office.  We  see 
men  in  every  profession,  as  well  as  those  in  many  lines  of  industry 
and  business,  applying  Psychology  to  their  personal  occupations,  and 
from  the  benefits  derived  from  it,  greatly  increasing  their  incomes,  en- 
larging the  scope  of  their  activities,  rising  to  higher  positions  of 
responsibility,  influence,  and  power. 

Applied  Psychology— 

The  Direct  Method 
to     Attain     Success 

Recognizing  the  need  for  a  popular  understanding  of  its  priceless 
truths,  an  organization  was  founded  by  Mr.  Warren  Hilton  some 
years  ago  to  coordinate  the  principles  of  Psychology  and  apply  them 
to  every-day  life — thus  the  Society  of  Applied  Psychology  came  into 
being.  Among  the  members  of  the  Advisory  Board,  who  also  con- 
tributed to  the  Society's  literature,  are  such  well-known  men  as 
Henry  A.  Buchtel,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Chancellor,  University  of  Denver, 
former  Governor  of  Colorado;  Hadsqn  Maxim,  D.Sc,  Inventor  ana 
Mechanical  Engineer;  George  Van  Ness  Dearborn,  M.D.;  Ph.D., 
Psychologist  and  Author;  Harry  S.  Tipper,  Chairman,  National 
Educational  Committee,  Associated  Advertising  Clubs  of  the  World, 
and  others. 

Because  of  the  very  great  value  of  the  Society's  Basic  Course  of 
Reading  to  the  average  man  and  woman.  The  Literary  Digest  is 
cooperating  to  bring  it  within  the  means  of  every  earnest  seeker  for 
self-betterment. 


fFhat  Others  Say: 


Hudson  Maxim,  Inventor, 

The  Society's  books  on  Applied  Psychology  I  consider  the  most  valuable  of  any 
books  on  the  subject  that  I  have  seen.  I  have  read  Spencer's  Psychology,  Munster- 
burg's  Psychology,  William  James'  Psychology,  and  many  others,  but  from  the  view- 
point of  usefulness  these  books,  to  my  mind,  are  much  more  valuable.  They  are 
especially  adapted  to  the  puri)ose  for  \phich  they  are  intended — the  application  of 
psychology  to  the  affairs  of  every-day  life. 

Ron.  George  TV.  P.  Hunt.  Governor  of  Arizona. 

I  am  glad  to  express  my  approval  of  the  work  which  is  being  done  by  this  organiza- 
tion. I  believe  it  to  be  a  fact  that  the  business  world  has  but  recently  discovered  the 
application  of  psychological  principles  as  a  distinct  and  valuable  asset,  worthy  of 
study  and  greater  utilization. 

R.  H.  Aishioti.  Vice-President .  Chicago  &*  Northwestern  Railway  Company. 

The  educational  work  which  your  Society  has  undertaken  on  lines  tending  to 
tcich  men  and  women  how  their  individual  efficiency  may  be  increased  by  more 
piofilable  use  of  energies  now  wasted,  is  a  most  commendable  one  and  can  not  but 
result  in  a  better  understanding  of  these  matters.  • 

£.  O.  McCormtck,  Vice-President.  Soulherti  Pacific  Company. 

I  think  your  Society  is  proceeding  along  i  he  right  lines  and  believe  that  the  practical 
application  of  psychologicjl  principles  such  as  you  teach  will  in  time  show  results  that 
will  be  worthy  of  the  effort  put  forth. 

Francis  A.  Hancock.  Mechanical  Mining  Engineer,  Cook,  Park  County,  Montana. 

I  have  been  a  student  of  pyschology  for  the  most  part  of  my  life,  and  have  studied 
many  of  the  standard  books  on  the  subject,  but  know  that  I  have  gained  more  in  the 
short  time  that  it  has  taken  to  read  your  works,  than  all  my  previous  study  of  the 
subject, 

I  urge  all  men  and  women  who  are  struggling  to  improve  and  better  themselves  and 
their  positions  in  life,  to  read  and  study  thoroughly  the  Basic  Course  of  Reading  in 
Applied  Psychology,  knowing  that  it  will  bring  success,  and  that  they  will  look  upon 
life  and  their  fellow  men  in  a  new  and  better  light.  Surely  there  is  no  easier  road  to 
self  improvement. 

Dr.  Gunning  Butler.  Santa  Ana..  Calif. 

I  consider  this  set  of  books  on  psychology  the  most  terse,  clear-cut,  understandable, 
and  interest-compelling  text  on  this  vital  subject  I  have  ever  read.  For  eighteen 
years  I  have  been  a  student  of  psychology  and  I  can  enthusiastically  recommend  this 
set  of  books  to  any  one  at  all  interested." 

Coleman  DuPont,  President,  E.  I.Du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder  Company. 

The  undertaking  of  your  Society  is  one  of  great  importance  to  this  country  alid  the 
question  of  mind  training  for  our  young  men  is  one  that  should  be  given  much  more 
consideration  than  it  is  given  to-day. 

W.  W.  Clarke.  Sec'y  &*  Treas.  Smith  &-  Clarke  Co.,  Owensboro,  Ky. 

For  some  years  I  have  been  interested  in  the  science  of  psychology,  and  have  read 
works  on  that  subject  by  McCosh.  James,  Munsterburg.  Prince,  Jastrow,  and  others; 
and  fascinating  reading  it  was.  too.  I  have  also  read  and  am  now  studying  the  "  Basic 
Course  of  Reading,"  It  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  only  time  that  the  problem,  as  a 
practical,  workable  proposition,  has  been  approached  from  the  right  direction. 

F.  P.  Schiffley,  Assistant  Cashier,  Peoples  National  Bank,  Orangeburg.  .S.  C. 

If  a  man  makes  a  real  study  of  your  course  1  can  not  see  why  he  should  fail  to  reach 
the  to[i  rung  of  the  ladder    if  he  wants  to.      It  is  uo  to  him. 


FRKE  I 


'HOW  TO   DEVELOP   YOUR 
OWER  OF  ACHIEVEMENT" 


A  compelling  booklet  packed  with  information  on  such  topics  as:_  Psychology 
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THE     LITERARY     DIGEST 

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Whether  You  Want  to  Know 


Jugo-Slav 

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Soviet 

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Cantigny 

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slacker 

Pershing 

Saint-Mihiel 


Maximalist 

gob 

pussyfoot 

nose  dive 

nnassif 

Aviatik 

Blighty 

dud 

Anzac 


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47 


©  HARRIS  A  EWINQ 

Pershing 


Haig 


Mercier 


Foch 


Hin  de  nbur^ 


Old  World  Intrigue  Laid  Bare ! 


How  the  murder  of  a  prince  and  his  wife  in  a  little  Bosnian  town  in  iqi4 
gave  a  pretext  for  declaring  war — -almost  overnight.  And  then — -how 
"diplomacy"  was  like  a  joke  in  Europe.  Treaties  between  sovereign 
states  became  "scraps  of  paper."  Constitutional  rights  of  countries  were  vio- 
lated. Nation  after  nation  was  dra^vn  into  the  vortex — England,  Fra.nce, 
Russia — thirty  in  all.  The  greatest— and  the  worst — -war  of  modern  times 
was  fought. 

Now  that  correspondence  of  the  intrigues  and  secret  diplomacy  that 
brought  on  this  war  has  been  revealed,  it  has  been  carefully  collated  and 
printed  for  your  information  in  the  opening  pages  of 

TheJiterarxD^st 
History  of  the  World  War 


THIS  GREAT  \\'ORK,  in  TEN  big  vol- 
umes, is  the  result  of  four  vears'  labor. 
It  teUs  the  \MIOLE  STORY  as  never 
told  before,  of  that  terrible  struggle,  which, 
despite  twentieth  centurv'  civilization,  lasted 
five  years,  kOled  or  injured  nearly  thirty  mil- 
lion human  beings,  destroyed  six  thousand 
ships,  brought  about  "meatless"  days  and 
suffering  throughout  the  United  States,  laid 
waste  vast  parts  of  Belgium,  Poland,  and 
Serbia,  completely  changed  the  face  of 
Europe,  and  imposed  a  tax  on  every  one  of 
us  that  we  are  still  paying  to-day.  You  ask 
how  such  a  conflict  would  rage  so  long  among 
nations  professing  to  be  religious  and  most  of 
them  worshiping  the  same  God?  For  answer 
read  this  remarkable  Histor>'.  It  will  give  you 
a  clearer  insight  into  the  causes  underlying  the 
war — "way  back  of  that  royal  couple's  murder 
in  Bosnia — than  you  can  possibly  get  from 
any  other  .source. 

Genf^^als  as  Historians 

The  Literary  Digest  History  of  the  World  War  is 
flot  a  mere  one-man  history.  It  is  a  careful  compila- 
tion by  F'rancis  Whiting  Halsey  of  official  reports 
and  thrilling  personal  experiences  supplied  by  dis- 
tinguished officers  and  enlisted  men  in  the  fight;  by 
war  correspondents,  strategists,  statesmen  and  other 
authorities. 

You  will  read  what  was  said  by  General  Pershing, 
Marshal  I'och,  .Admiral  Hugh  Rodman.  Field  Mar- 
shal Haig,  Major-Genera!  von  Bernhardi,  Field 
Marshal  von  Hindenburg,  Major-General  Maurice, 
and  other  noted  officers  on  both  sides. 

You  will  find  elaborate  reports,  official  and  other- 
wise, of  blood-stirring  happenings,  deeds  of  daring. 


suffering,  sacrifice,  cruelty,  torture,  massacre.  One 
tells  you  of  works  of  kindness  and  charity.  Another 
tells  of  acts  of  wholesale  miurder  and  destruction. 

Full  Accounts  of  Battles 

You  will  read  thrilling  reports  of  battles  in  France, 
Belgium,  Italy,  Russia,  Japan,  China,  Egypt,  the 
Holy  Land,  everywhere — on  land,  on  and  under  the 
water,  in  the  air.  You  will  read — perhaps  for  the 
first  time — carefully  guarded  information  about 
the  transportation  of  two  million  American  soldiers 
to  Europe,  notwithstanding  German  submarine 
activity. 

You  will  discover  the  remarkably  quick  turn  in 
the  tide  of  the  war  when  the  *' Yanks"  finally 
landed  on  the  firing  line. 

You  will  devour  the  memorable  campaigns  of 
"Our  Boys" — maybe  of  YOUR  boy — thru  every 
glorious  engagement,  including  the  memorable 
moment  at  Chateau  Thierry,  where  the  French  had 
been  fighting  almost  hopelessly  for  days,  when  the 
American  officers  hurried  up,  saluted  and  spoke 
eight  words  to  the  French:  "Vous  etes  fatigues. 
Vous  allez  partir.  Notre  job."  ("You  are  tired. 
You  get  away.     Our  job.") 

From  that  point  you  will  follow  the  triumphant 
course  of  our  armies  thru  the  Marne  saUent,  in  the 
Argonne,  at  the  St.  Quentin  Tunnel  and  on  to  the 
overwhelming  victory  under  General  Pershing  at 
the  St.  Mihiel  salient. 

Was   Your  Boy   There? 

These  battles,  with  the  names  of  troops  taking 
part,  have  gone  down  into  history  and  taken  their 
rightful  places  with  the  battles  of  Bunker  Hill  in 
1775,  New  Orleans  in  1815,  Gettysburg  in  1S63, 
Manila  Bay  in  1898.  The  Literary  Digest  History 
of  the  World  War  in  your  home  tells  of  these  glorious 
deeds  and  will  lead  your  children  and  generations 
to  come  to  revere  the  memories  of  their  ancestors 


10  Beautiful  Volumes— 4000  Pages 


Bound  in  Dark 

Blue  Ribbed 

Cloth. 


Printed  on  High 
Class  Paper 
From  Large 
Clear  Type. 

1000 
Illustrations 
and  Maps  in 

Black  and 

White  and  in 

Colors. 


as  we  now  do  homage  to  the  valorous  achievements 
of  Washington,  Lafayette,  Andrew  Jackson,  Grant, 
Lee,  Dewey,  and  others  who  gave  us  our  heritage 
of  freedom  and  made  possible  the  United  States 
as  it  is  to-day. 

EVERY  American  home  should  have  this 
History — for  study  and  reference.  Especially 
should  it  be  in  homes  from  which  a  father  or  son  or 
husband  or  brother  went  into  the  war.  Perhaps 
you  never  have  heard  the  whole  story  of  what  HE 
did!  .\nd  so  you  should  have  this  History.  You 
should  have  a  complete,  authentic  record  of  HIS 
achievements  as  shown  in  accounts  of  when  and 
where  HIS  company  or  regiment  or  division  went 
"over  the  top, "  and  how  HE  helped  to  strangle 
German  imperial  autocracy.  This  History  links 
HIS  life  and  HIS  heroism  with  the  greatest 
miUtary  victory  of  civilization. 

More  Than  a  War  History 

The  Literary  Digest  History  of  the  World  War 
does  not  end  with  the  signing  of  the  armistice  in 
191S.  It  vividly  describes  all  the  events  of  re- 
construction days,  including  the  surrender  of 
Germany's  ships.  It  tells  of  the  abdication  of 
Wilhelm,  the  German  Kaiser;  his  flight  into 
Holland;  his  life  at  .-\merongen.  It  gives  long- 
suppressed  facts  about  the  abdication,  imprison- 
ment and  cold-blooded  murder  of  Nicholas  II,  Czar 
of  Russia. 

You  have  all  the  facts  about  President  Wilson's 
activities  in  the  war,  from  his  proclamation  of 
neutrality  in  1914  to  and  including  trips  to  the 
Paris  Peace  Conference,  and  his  veto  of  the  Knox 
Peace  resolution  in  1920.  The  story  has  never 
been  published  before  in  such  readable  form. 

Nothing  But  Praise 

General  Pershing  said  he  was   "very  pleased   to 

have  this  valuable  History  in  his  library." 

Ex- Secretary  of  the  Na\'y  Josephus  Daniels  said: 
"It  is  remarkable  how  full  and  clear  and  informing 
this  narrative  is.  It  will  be  of  lasting  value  and 
its  pages  will  be  drawn  upon  by  future  historians 
to  emphasize  this  or  that  phase  of  the  great 
struggle." 

Major-General  Leonard  Wood  said:  "Your  work  will 
give  the  general  public  a  very  satisfactory  and  inter- 
esting story  of  the  war  and  furnish  information  which 
the  reading  pubUc  is  anxious  to  obtain  and  will  enable 
it  to  follow  the  progress  of  the  war  from  the  beginning 
to  end.  It  will  also  furnish  a  useful  reference  for  the 
militar\  :>tudent." 

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